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By S. Z. El-Tawil, K. A. El-Barawy, M. B. Morsi, M. M. Nasr, Z. I. Zaki

"Tue sulphatization of zinc concentrate produced from heated zinc concentrate of Um Ghieg area, eastern desert by ammonium sulphate as sulphatizing agent is carried out at different conditions to achieve the appreciable formation of soluble sulphates. The maximum zinc recovery as soluble sulphate equfils to 95% upon using 1.5 stoichiometry ammonium sulphate at 600 °C for one hour. Tue obtained leached zinc sulphate solution is subjected· to purification process to prepare high pure zinc metal and zmc compounds such as pure zinc sulphate, zinc caibonate and zinc oxide. The products obtained are analyzed chemically and identified by X-ray analysisTue mechanism and kinetics of the sulphatization process of zinc concentrate are considered where the activation energy is calculated and equals to 33.3 K.J.mol""1 A process flowsheet for the overall sulphatization process of zinc concentrate by ammonium sulphate is proposed.IntroductionConsiderable reserves of zinc ores are present in Um Ghieg area eastern desert, Egypt. The possibility of extraction zinc from these ores and preparing its valuable compounds by choosing a more feasible technology become of vital importance. An attention is focused on the sulphatizing roasting processes (1-9) to achieve the appreciable formation of soluble sulphates. Previous publications are reported in our division by El. Tawil and others (10-16) using ammonium sulphate as sulphatizing agent for the successful treatment of nonferrous bearing materials.Therefore, the present work aims to study the different factors affecting the sulphatizing roasting process of local zinc coocentrate by anunonium sulphate to extract completely zinc and preparing its main compounds. Tue mechanism and kinetics of the different chemical reactloos that 1ake place in the process are considered."

Jan 1, 2000

By K. Saberyan

In this study the extraction of zirconium and hafnium has been investigated by solvent extraction using Cyanex 302 in various media such as nitric, sulfuric and hydrochloric acid has been investigated. Effect of various parameters such as type and acid concentration, extractant concentration, type of diluent, equilibrium time, various foreign ions and finally type and concentration of strip-ping agent have been studied. The results showed that nitric acid was optimum media for extraction of zirconium and hafnium. The extraction of zirconium and hafnium occurred quantitatively in the concentration of higher than 4 M nitric acid but in hydrochloric acid media, quantitative extraction obtains over 8 M HCl. In sulfuric acid media, extraction of zirconium and hafnium is negligible. Stripping studies showed that the optimum reagent for stripping was 0.5M sulfuric acid.

Jan 1, 2014

By R. Schuhmann, A. M. Gaudin, J. Dasher

Occurrrences of South African uranium have been known qualitatively for over twenty years, but no account was taken of them because of their low grade. In 1945, known uranium deposits were few, but their grades were 20 to 100 times higher than South African ores. Viewed in this light, the exploitation of South Africa's uranium is revolutionary indeed. Development of various analytical procedures capable of dealing with the needs of the project accounted for one-half of the cost and included: a) simple and automatic radiometric analytical procedures, b) sampling procedures appropriate to prevent sample contamination, c) procedures for sample and record-storing to accommodate many thousands of analyses per month, d) chemical methods giving high accuracy analyses for high grade samples not at radioactive equilibrium, and e) development of rapid procedures having moderate accuracy for low grade samples i.e., mill tailings and barren liquors. This task is continuing today with major improvements coming from time to time.

Aug 1, 1956

By James A. Barclay, Ralph C. Kirby

The US minerals posture will be increasingly dominated by three interrelated factors. First, when viewed over the long range, the US supply situation can be expected to steadily deteriorate as demand increases. Domestic high-grade ores have been used up, and other nations compete with the US for world supplies. Second, as environmental awareness becomes more acute, an aroused citizenry is demanding that minerals industries conform their operations to rigorous new standards. Finally, the changing energy situation that confronts the US is forcing an appraisal of energy-use patterns on operations previously guided solely by economic principles and not by national priorities. While future US mineral production and consumption patterns are unclear at this time, it is certain that US demand for minerals will continue to outrun domestic supply. Thus, the US is faced with a challenge of producing more minerals and metals from lower grade resources. Meeting this challenge means a strengthening of US research and development efforts, coupled with their application in the remaining leadtimes available. Some specific examples of how the US Bureau of Mines (USBM) is assisting in the processing of low-grade resources follow.

Jan 6, 1975

By Kot F. v. Unrug

The depletion of thicker coal reserves has resulted in the thinner seams being economically attractive. Surface protection against subsidence limits the extraction ratio to 50% for the room and pillar method as a "no subsidence condition". That rule was developed for pillars with smaller width/height ratio because seams mined at the time were commonly 6 feet thick. Over time pillar ribs deteriorate around the pillar perimeter and thus decrease the area of the pillar. Using 50% extraction as the no subsidence condition in the squat pillar category (below 42 in with w/h > 7) causes unnecessary losses of reserves because squat pillars are stronger. In this paper a method is presented for design of long-term pillars. Based on the analysis of pillar deterioration and field observations, an increase of the "no subsidence" extraction rate to 60% for squat pillars is proposed.

Jan 1, 2001

By Guozhi Lyu, Ting-an ZHANG, Biyu Long, Yajing Tian, Xuejiao Cao, Weiguang Zhang

Aim to the separation problem of high concentration V–Fe in stronger acidic leaching solution of vanadium slag, a novel chelating extraction system is proposed to separate V and Fe. Influence factors including initial pH value, the extractant concentration, the phase ratio, temperature and time are investigated. The experiment results show that single extraction rate of V and Fe reach 85.57 and 0.39% respectively, when pH value is −0.4, organic phase composition is 30% Mextral 973H + 70% sulfonated kerosene oil, O:A = 1:1, stirring time is 10 min, extraction temperature is 30 °C. The industrial experiment results of three levels countercurrent extraction show that the total extraction rate of vanadium and iron can reach 97.44 and 0.23%, separation factor is 6410. The effective separation of V and Fe in high acid and high iron solution can be accomplished.

Mar 1, 2018

By Zuomei Jin

The Mineralogical form of Silver in a Ag-rich complex ore was determined. In the complex sulfide ore, acidic thiourea leaching resulted in 35% extraction of silver directly. In the same complex sulfide ore, under the effect of ultrasonic treatment, 65% of silver can be ex¬tracted. After the above ore had been roasted and acidically leached of Zn and Cu, the silver extracted from this Pb-Ag residue was 96.8%. The effets of temperature, thiourea and ferric ion concentrations and partical size were examined. The leaching rate of silver from the Pb-Ag residue was diffusion controlled. The activation energy was calculated to be 10. 49%KJ/mole. The kinetic model for the thiourea leaching of silver from Pb-Ag residue was obtained and is given by, The kinetics of silver cementation by aluminium in thiourea solutions was also investigated. The activation energy was calculated to be 65. 13KJ/mole, which is reasonable fora rate-limiting surface reaction.

Jan 1, 1995

By Browning E. J

The application of conventional dust control systems in British Coal mines has considerably reduced the incidence of pneumoconiosis. A number of new techniques have been developed involving extraction close to the cutting heads of mining machines which will be capable of controlling airborne dust with the greater intensity of production necessary in the present economic climate.

Jan 1, 1988

By Ho-Sung Yoon, Jyothi Rajesh Kumar, Jin-Young Lee

"Global population is a key factor in future energy requirements, especially considering the important elements of global energy resources, electricity production, the accessibility/non-accessibility of electricity, greenhouse gas emissions and the states of nuclear reactors. Everyday human requirements depend on industrial products, and industries need a considerable amount of electricity to run. Nuclear fuel is inexpensive and bolsters industrial growth. As uranium reserves are being consumed rapidly, an alternative source of energy in the nuclear industry is thorium. Here, primary energy supplies by various sources from 1993 to 2011 as well as estimates of future needs to 2020 are discussed. This study finds that primary energy sources are mainly fossil fuels, renewables sources, and nuclear and hydro energy. In addition, growth depends on increases mainly in renewable sources.Recovery of thorium from its ores by using hydrometallurgical routes were described and discussed. The final part of this paper was presented a case study of the thorium extraction from Korean monazite ore leach liquors by using Prieme JM-T diluted in A150 diluent as an extractant system. And possible separation of the thorium from rare earths (REs) and base metals were calculated by measuring of separation factors and finally, the recovery of thorium from loaded organic of Prieme JM-T was established.THORIUM IS FUTURE NUCLEAR FUEL?Global energy consumption is increasing everyday with the high population growth, high industrialization of numerous countries and the higher level of good and services consumption that follows it. If we look at specific sectors of the economy, oil consumption grew by 0.8 million barrels per day, globally, whereas the increase was 0.4 % for natural gas and coal 1.8 % for nuclear power and just under 2.0 % for hydroelectric power (Asheley 2009). Use of renewable sources of energy for power generation and transportation increased by 3% in 2014 (BP 2015)). Thus alternative source of energy must be identified and developed to meet this increasing demand. Thorium is a potential one for the nuclear industry."

Jan 1, 2016

By B Harvey

Achieving community and stakeholder endorsement during life-of-mine planning and implementation requires a business-connected approach, as opposed to charitable giving, disconnected offsets and environmental adventurism.CITATION:Harvey, B, 2014. Extractive companies, development and environmental agendas, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2014 , pp 19–22 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 16, 2014

As the title indicates the central themes discussed in this contribution are sustainable development, information systems, and extractive industry. More specifically, the objective is to present a prototype for the systematic generation of extractive industry (henceforth: EI) û specific sustainability information. The paper begins with the authorÆs viewpoints on the core notions of sustainability, and development, as well as their relationship to information. These set the stage for the introduction of the information system (IS), as well as the follow-up sustainability information system (SIS) extractive industry sustainability information system (EISIS) concepts and related discussions. The paper continues with a second part, in which, efforts to research and develop an EISIS prototype are described. First, the team is presented. Second, the systemÆs aim and target groups are briefly discussed. After, an articulated overarching EISIS conceptual model emphasising capital accumulation, and service flow concepts û is presented. This is followed by a detailed description of the assembled prototype with a focus on data and information generation. The formulation of data generation, storage and transmission processes, as well as its use in sustainability interpretation rules and their embedment in the conceptual model is made with respect to monetised stock and flow parameters, measured in the appropriate dimensions. In the third part, the author presents and discusses the results of a first round of prototype experimental development in three major EI firms. First, the system observation, and data analysis protocols are described. Second, a review of protocol implementation, and respective results, is made. Finally, the overall performance of the proposed prototype, and development process issues are discussed, before suggesting areas for improvement and future research. The paper ends with a conclusion in which the author provides a retrospective balance of the æknowledge creation projectÆ, as well as a prospective outlook for research in this field; before acknowledgements are made and references provided.

Jan 1, 2009

By Theophile S. Yameogo

Les ressources naturelles ont en général été le moteur du développement économique et social des nations. Les pays aujourd?hui développés sont pour la plupart d?anciens eldorado, charbonniers ou pétroliers. D?autres le sont toujours. L?Afrique fait cependant figure d?exception : même en étant comblé de ressources naturelles exceptionnelles, les pays de ce continent croulent sous le poids de la pauvreté et de ses acabits que sont les maladies, la famine, la guerre et l?insurrection sociale. On reconnaît néanmoins qu?il y a des cas particuliers comme le Botswana, la Namibie, l?Afrique du Sud. Face à cette situation, beaucoup de scénarii ont été proposés sans pour autant porté les fruits espérés. Le rapport Brundtland suggère que le développement durable est la clé du succès car elle veille à la prospérité économique, à l?équité dans la société et à la pérennité dans l?environnement. Pour l?Afrique, beaucoup de facteurs doivent être considérés et les solutions se doivent d?être pratiques et éthiques. Le futur ingénieur des mines qui a écrit ce rapport, apporte sa vision de la situation non sans avoir auparavant analysé les faits. Cette démarche, qui se veut avant tout éthique, inclut les aspects sociaux, économiques et politiques. Introduction In the 40s, 50s and the 60s, many economists, among which Harold Hotelling from South Carolina University, thought that developing countries could reach socio-economical success by extracting their natural resources such as oil and minerals. The current economical disaster seems to have contradicted that belief and critics like Davis Graham (Colorado School of Mines) and Michael Ross (University of California at Los Angeles) even suggested that extractive activities stop in Africa. But the experts of the World Bank (Mining Department) and some mining and oil companies are committed to reverse the tendency by implementing a new approach. Considering the principles of sustainable development defined in the Brundtland report (1987), we decided to analyze the possibility of giving the extractive industry a catalytic role in creating a socially, economically and environmentally development in Africa. In other words, can we continue to mine and extract oil in Africa for its blossoming future under the ruling of the sustainable development? In the following, we start by explaining the African socio-economic and political context. After a brief definition of the sustainable development, we explain why, for Africa, some believe in the extractive industry and some don?t. In the end, we draw out conciliatory arguments.

Apr 1, 2005

By S. W. Ross

In 1936 a description of the plant (Fig 1) and process employed by the Electrolytic Zinc Co. of Australasia Ltd. for the recovery of zinc from zinc concentrate by the electrolytic process was prepared. † During the twelve years which have elapsed since the preparation of the earlier paper, several major changes in the metallurgy of the process have been introduced. It is the purpose of the present paper to give a general description of these changes and thus to bring up to date the description of the plant and process. Summary The major changes in Risdon practice since 1936 have been: 1. Replacement of two stage roasting by a preliminary roast followed by the flotation of all the leach residue and the roasting of the flotation concentrate. 2. Screening of all calcine fed to the pachucas. 3. Continuous leaching of calcine and improved classification of pachuca discharge. 4. Close control of hydrogen ion concentration during purification for iron removal. 5. Recovery of cobalt as a good grade oxide. 6. Production of part of the zinc output in the form of "four nines" metal (99.99 pct purity). 7. Closer spacing of electrodes thus increasing the potential output of cathode zinc per cell by 50 pct. Changes which are in prospect and for which construction work is proceeding at the present time involve the starting up of: 1. Two suspension roasters. 2. A contact acid plant to produce 150 tons‡ of acid per day and replacing the existing Mills Packard chamber plant. 3. Extra power station capacity to permit greater current flow to existing cell room units. This will increase the output of cathode zinc from about 245 to 290 tons per day. Plans for the future envisage the building of an ammonium sulphate plant, the first unit of which will produce about 50,000 tons per year, and improved treatment of zinc plant residue for the recovery of zinc, lead and other metals. At the end of this paper tables of metallurgical data are presented relating to the year ending June 30, 1948. Details of Changed Practice Output In 1936 the production of cathode zinc amounted to about 200 tons per day. This has since been increased to about 245 tons per day while plant extensions are practically complete which will permit of an output of about 290 tons per day in the near future. Roasting Division ROASTING POLICY A major change has occurred in the roasting policy. Twelve years ago the method in use was to carry out a two stage roast in the first stage of which sulphide sulphur was reduced to about 6 pct. The pre-roast calcine was re-roasted in modified Leggo furnaces using coal as fuel, sulphide sulphur being reduced to about 0.8 pct. The whole procedure was described on pp. 482491 of the earlier paper. Although this roasting procedure had certain advantages it possessed some distinct disadvantages. For instance, it appeared uneconomical to heat up the entire input of pre-roast calcine to roasting temperature by the expenditure of fuel in order to oxidise a few percent of sulphide sulphur. It was argued that if the pre-roast calcine were leached and a process could be developed for the recovery of a zinc sulphide concentrate from the leach residue, this concentrate, small in weight compared with the pre-roost calcine, would probably roast autogenously, thus virtually eliminating the expenditure of fuel as well as greatly increasing the weight of sulphur oxidised per square foot of furnace hearth area. The obvious method of producing a suitable concentrate from leach residue was by flotation. It will be recalled (see p. 495 of the earlier paper) that when two-stage roasting was practised the leach residue was classified, the granular fraction was ground and floated while the slime fraction was thickened, filtered and dried ready for shipment to a lead smelter. This process worked quite successfully. However, when trials were made of leaching a calcine carrying several percent of sulphide sulphur the granular fraction still floated well, but the slime fraction carrying 8-10 pct sulphide sulphur yielded very poor results when subjected to flotation. This fact held up the application of "pre-roast" leaching for many years. However, successful flotation of the slime fraction of leach residue was finally achieved and in August 1940 the slime flotation plant began operation, while the leach-

Jan 1, 1950

By S. W. Ross

A. A. CENTER*—This paper reminds me of the beginning of the work of the Electrolytic Zinc Company of Australasia. Early work for this Company, as some of you may know, was done at the Bully Hill Plant in California. After working there for some time Herbert Gepp, now Sir Herbert, came to the Anaconda Co. plants in Montana where I met him. He spent some months there, in fact almost a year if I remember rightly. That was when we were breaking in the new electrolytic zinc plant at Great Falls, Montana. From there he went back to Australia and started in on the plant there. I believe they had an original plant of about 20 tons per day of cathode zinc. We heard from them for some time, until they were able to go along on their own, and they have done very well ever since as you have heard. Their practice, (the flow sheet, the leaching practice), has been quite different as reported in the paper and apparently they are still following that practice to some extent. While the earliest work on selective flotation was done down in Australia, the big companies there, strange to say, were far behind the American companies in taking it up; and it is only in comparatively recent years they have gone to the alkaline circuit and dropped out thereby more of their iron and lead. The zinc plant now is up to a capacity of 100,000 tons a year and I believe that may be notched up to about 105,000. T. H. WELDON*—I would like to ask

Jan 1, 1950

By G. H. Anderson

Cadmium-coppeR precipitate, a byproduct of the purification stage of the zinc plant, is composed mainly of zinc, cadmium and copper in varying amounts depending on the efficiency of precipitation and the cadmium and copper contents of the impure solution treated. The composition range is approximately: cadmium 10-12 pct, copper 6-8 pct, and zinc 3&35 pct. As received at the cadmium plant, the precipitate is a dark gray to black press cake produced by filter pressing the flocculent cadmium-copper precipitate formed when impure zinc solution is agitated with zinc dust. The details of the cadmium-copper precipitation are to be found in the paper "Electrolytic Zinc at Risdon, Tasmania," by W. C. Snow. Transactions AIME, 121, 501. The treatment, in addition to recovering cadmium as metal, yields a copper product as a residue for realization and recovers in solution for return to the zinc plant, the excess of zinc dust used during purification. The recovery of cadmium metal is approximately 200 tons† per year, but, with the amount of copper residue recovered, varies with the zinc production tonnage, composition of the original concentrates, degree of roasting and other operational factors. The operations involved in the recovery of the foregoing materials are carried out in a building adjacent to the purification section of the zinc plant and can best be described by dividing the process into the following stages: 1. Oxidation and Grinding of the cadmium-copper precipitate. 2. Leaching and Filtering. 3. Precipitation of cadmium. 4. Oxidation and Grinding of the precipitated cadmium. 5. Leaching oxidized cadmium precipitate and Purification of leach solution. 6. Electrolysis. 7. Melting, Casting and Packing. A feature of the process is the use of two distinct solution circuits. Spent electrolyte from the zinc plant circuit containing about 10 pct sulphuric acid is used as the primary solvent of the cadmium and zinc present in the oxidized precipitate. When the cadmium is later separated by precipitation and filtering, the filtrate, originally zinc plant spent electrolyte and now fortified in zinc, is returned to the zinc plant. The precipitated cadmium, after oxidation, is redissolved in spent electrolyte from cadmium electrolysis which solution is in closed circuit within the cadmium plant except for discards to the zinc plant circuit as mentioned in Section 5 hereinafter. (Fig 1.) Details of the various operations follow. I. Oxidation and Grinding of the Cadminm-copper Precipitate The precipitate having had a preliminary drying by compressed air in Dehne filter presses in the zinc plant is trucked to a storage platform of sufiicient length to store 3 to 4 days' production separately. After 48 hr exposure to atmosphere, oxidation is sufficient to enable all cadmium and zinc but only a portion of the copper to be dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid. The oxidized precipitate is shovelled into trucks and, after weighing and sampling, is broken in size by means of

Jan 1, 1950

By G. H. Anderson

H. R. HANLEY*—I have been asked to discuss briefly the development of rotating cathodes for the electrolytic deposition of cadmium. The earliest recorded use of rotating cathodes was by Hoepfner at Frufurt, Germany about sixty years ago. He elec-trolized zinc chloride solution using diaphragms to separate electrodes. In the early experimental work of the Bully Hill Copper Mining and Smelting Co., Shasta County, Calif., rotating aluminum cathodes 4 ft in diam were used in the electrolysis of an acid zinc sulphate solution. Finished cathodes weighing up to 400 lb were produced. Because of mechanical difficulties, this type of cathode was abandoned for zinc, but was later used for cadmium because of the relative smoothness of deposit in comparison with stationary plates with comparable current densities. Cadmium sponge which forms on the cathode at moderate current densities (without special treatment) is entirely eliminated by a slow rotation. The rate of rotation of the cathode has an effect on the mechanical nature of the deposit. A high rate of rotation concentrates the adhering electrolyte on the shaft; a moderate rate appears to concentrate on the cathode a short distance out from the shaft tending to corrode the deposit in the form of a ring. At a very slow rotation (2 to 3 rpm) the adhering electrolyte gravitates nearly vertically, thus avoiding the cutting ring referred to above. The true explanation for the smoother deposits obtained on rotating cathodes may not be given definitely as the numerous factors involved are not thoroughly understood. Smooth deposits are obtained when the orderly growth of the metal crystals in the cathode lattice are disorganized. Thus the crystals form and grow for a very short interval when they are arrested and a new crystal forms. The continued growth of the original crystals provides large crystals and a rough deposit. Also if the acidity of the electrolyte is low, hydrogen gas bubbles adhere to the deposit. As the cathode is rotated the gas surface is brought into the atmosphere where they burst; thus the deposit is made on a surface relatively gas-free. An aluminum hub distance piece was riveted to each aluminum disk 4 ft in diam, slipped on a 4 1/2 in. steel shaft and pressed tight to prevent acid electrolyte seeping through to the shaft. The 9-cathode assembly was supported on insulated bearings. Electrical contact to the shaft was made through what was equivalent to a copper pulley. Sufficiently high conductivity brushes were placed on the face of the pulley to lead the current to the cathode bus bar. The assembly was driven by a link belt contacting a sprocket insulated from the shaft. The lead anodes were semicircular and supported on porcelain insulators placed on the bottom of the cell. Two anodes were provided for each cathode to permit an 8-in. space between them without increasing the ohmic resistance. This ample spacing permitted easy stripping of deposit with the assembly in place. Cathode cadmium was melted under 650 W cylinder oil. After casting, the primary slabs were remelted under molten caustic soda and cast into pencils 1 1/32 in. in diam. Rotating cathodes for deposition of cadmium are used at Risdon, Tasmania, and at Magdeburg, Germany. W. G. WOOLF*—This paper is very-interesting to me because in our work at the Electrolytic Zinc Plant of the Sullivan Mining Co. we had an exactly similar problem—that is, a method of producing cadmium from our purification residue, the recovery of the contained copper as a copper precipitate which could be sent to a copper smelter and the production of merchantable cadmium. It is interesting to me, not knowing of the work of the Risdon people, how closely we approximate them in their main metallurgy, diverging at several interesting steps which I would like to discuss for just a moment. For example, at Risdon they oxidize their purification residue. In our practice we take the current residue as it is produced in the purification department of the zinc plant and process it in the cadmium plant. The only oxidation that it obtains is the oxidation in the presses, the dumping of the presses and the collection and transportation of the residue to the cadmium plant. We find that the leaching of that residue does not necessarily require the oxidation step that the Risdon people evidently find necessary. The discussion of oxidation comes in again in the matter of the treatment of the precipitated cadmium sponge with zinc dust which again at Risdon is oxidized but which we do not attempt to oxidize except as it oxidizes itself in the storage. There is a partial oxidation which cannot be avoided, as Mr. David-sou pointed out, but we make no attempt to attain a complete oxidation and we dissolve the cadmium sponge in the sul-

Jan 1, 1950

Established as a Division November 17, 1948 T D Jones, Chairman O C Ralston, Past Chairman R R. McNaughton, Chairman-elect B. W Gonser '53, Vice-Chairman P. T. Stroup '54, Vice-Chairman Ernest Kirkendall, Secretary 29 West 39th Street, New York City

Jan 1, 1952

Established as a Division November 17, 1948 B W Gonser, Chairman J C Kinnear, Jr, Past Chairman H H Kellogg, Chairman-Elect R C Cole, Vice-Chairman, '58 A E Lee, Jr, Vice-Chairman, '59 W R Opie, Vice-Chairman, '60 R W Shearman, Secretary AIME, 29 West 39th Street New York 18, N Y

Jan 1, 1957

By W. R. Opie, O. W. Mole

By confining the electrolytic reduction of TiCl4 to the interior of a porous basket-cathode the electrolyte between the anode and the cathode can be kept free of reduced chlorides of titanium eliminating undesirable reactions of reduced titanium chlorides with brickwork or oxygen in the cell atmosphere. Semiwalls are not needed. Operating conditions are given and discussed. Titanium yields based on TiCl4 introduced are 93 pct. Cell voltage and amperage characteristics are adaptable to multiple cathode-series cell urmngements. EXPERIMENTS conducted in the National Lead Co., Titanium Division, Research Laboratories showed that titanium metal could be deposited in an electrolytic cell in which titanium tetrachloride was introduced through a tubular cathode.' The reduced chlorides as formed were confined to the vicinity of the cathode. They were reduced to form a cocoon-shaped growth of sponge titanium metal at the end of the cathodic tube below the surface of a sodium chloride-strontium chloride electrolyte. No diaphragm was needed.' Although high-purity, coarse crystalline metal was produced in the cocoon growth, the yields of metal removed from the cell, based on the amount of titanium introduced as TiCl4, were usually only 40 to 60 pct. The growth of the cocoon deposits was away from the cathodic tube for introduction of TiC14 toward the anode following the flu lines. The reduced chlorides of titanium diffused through the deposit and were reduced to titanium electrolytically within the deposit or on the outer surfaces. Deposition within the pores of the cocoon was detrimental to further deposition because it plugged the passages used by the reduced chlorides to diffuse away from the point of titanium introduction. As plugging due to deposition in the pores proceeded, the reduced chlorides in the center of the cocoon would force their way out by forming a channel and would escape from the vicinity of the cathode without being reduced to metal. Some work had been done previously1, 2 which indicated that if the end of the cathodic tube for introducing TiC14 was surrounded by a screen connected to the tube so that it too was cathodic, growth could be made to occur within the screen. Direction of growth was observed to be from the screen toward the point of TiCl4 introduction. Through a series of design modifications a cathode evolved which consisted of an introduction tube surrounded by a perforated metal basket as shown in Fig. 1. Modifications of this design are described in Refs. 3, 4, and 5. This basic cathode designa" was incorporated in electrolytic cells containing graphite anodes and constructed of high-silica brick refractory for containing the electrolyte (see Fig. 2). The inner crucible was surrounded by insulating brick and the entire unit contained in a welded steel shell. Suitable cooling chambers with inert gas atmospheres were devised so that the cathode could be removed from the cell without exposing the deposit to air while hot. Various alkali and alkaline earth chlorides were used as electrolytes.

Jan 1, 1961

By Robert D. Pehlke, Kazuhisa Okajima

ThE prediction of the activity coefficient for a solute in a multicomponent liquid metallic solution based on measurements in the related binary systems has been the object of study for some time, particularly in iron-base alloys.1,2 Very few measurements, however, have been made on nonferrous systems; furthermore, measurements made for the specific purpose of testing various prediction equations are almost nonexistent. The measurements here described of the activity coefficient of cadmium in liquid lead alloys were directed toward this goal. One of the most direct means by which the activity coefficient can be calculated has been based on the independent influences of each solute. When solute metals i,j, k, and so forth are present, the activity coefficient, y, of one of these (i for example) may be expressed as a product of factors which represent the effects of each of the other components:

Jan 1, 1964