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By Anthony G. Reid

INTRODUCTION At the time of the death of Mao Tse-tung in 1976, China was a major oil producing country with a daily oil flow in the order of 1.735 million barrels. This position had been achieved with minimal assistance from the outside world. Further, only some fifteen years had elapsed since the country's daily oil production capacity had hovered at the barely significant level of one hundred thousand barrels. Why then did the new leaders of China, after this very creditable record of success, suddenly change the direction of the country's drive for future hydrocarbon production? First, by switching much of the emphasis of exploration from onshore to the offshore continental shelf basins, and further by apparently abandoning the philosophy of self reliance calling upon the world's oil industry to share in the task of locating and developing these potential offshore energy reserves. The answer is probably only partly understood by those of us outside China, However, a number of factors exerting an important influence on this decision can be identified. THE MOVE OFFSHORE The new leadership was anxious to rapidly move China into her rightful place amongst the powerful and technologically advanced nations of the world. Modernization became the slogan, specifically modernization on four fronts, agriculture, industry, technology and military with the goal to "catch the west by the year 2000". But how to generate the capital to finance this massive modernization program? The rapid escalation of the price of crude oil following the 1973 Oil Embargo and the continuing apparently insatiable world demand for this now extremely precious primary resource was very clear to all. China, as a major producer, could export crude to help finance the ambitious development programs of the government. To do this, however, would require a very significant in¬crease in present production capacity, as the domestic demand even for China with her relatively low per capita energy consumption, is essentially equal to the current production. Trying to rapidly move the new regime's programs into actions, one can only assume that the planners looked at the success of the petroleum industry over the preceding fifteen years and quickly concluded that this well established curve could be maintained and indeed steepened with an increase in effort. The rapid discovery of a few more Daqing's (China's premier oil field, producing one million barrels a day) would have the country's ambitious modernization goals within reach. Petroleum would At the time of the death of Mao Tse-tung in 1976, China was a major oil producing country with a daily oil flow in the order of 1.735 million barrels. This position had been achieved with minimal assistance from the outside world. Further, only some fifteen years had elapsed since the country's daily oil production capacity had hovered at the barely significant level of one hundred thousand barrels. Why then did the new leaders of China, after this very creditable record of success, suddenly change the direction of the country's drive for future hydrocarbon production? First, by switching much of the emphasis of exploration from onshore to the offshore continental shelf basins, and further by apparently abandoning the philosophy of self reliance calling upon the world's oil industry to share in the task of locating and developing these potential offshore energy reserves. The answer is probably only partly understood by those of us outside China, However, a number of factors exerting an important influence on this decision can be identified. THE MOVE OFFSHORE The new leadership was anxious to rapidly move China into her rightful place amongst the powerful and technologically advanced nations of the world. Modernization became the slogan, specifically modernization on four fronts, agriculture, industry, technology and military with the goal to "catch the west by the year 2000", But how to generate the capital to finance this massive modernization program? The rapid escalation of the price of crude oil following the 1973 Oil Embargo and the continuing apparently insatiable world demand for this now extremely precious primary resource was very clear to all. China, as a major producer, could export crude to help finance the ambitious development programs of the government. To do this, however, would require a very significant increase in present production capacity, as the domestic demand even for China with her relatively low per capita energy consumption, is essentially equal to the current production. Trying to rapidly move the new regime's programs into actions, one can only assume that the planners looked at the success of the petroleum industry over the preceding fifteen years and quickly concluded that this well established curve could be maintained and indeed steepened with an increase in effort. The rapid discovery of a few more Daqing's (China's premier oil field, producing one million barrels a day) would have the country's ambitious modernization goals within reach. Petroleum would be the principal bridge to the bright future. The next decision involved the question of where to look for these vast new reserves. Chinese exploration teams had already looked at most of the onshore sedimentary basins and, while they were the first to admit that there was much yet to do, it was fairly clear to them that the potential for large new accumulations was confined to two areas: the little explored, remote, inhospitable regions of western China, principally Xinkiang Province and the equally unexplored offshore basins of the continental shelf and slope. In both cases China faced a very serious problem. The inhospitable environments were severely straining her petroleum industry's current technological ability to cope, particularly as the government needed rapid results. Thus the pragmatic and, to the foreign oil industry, unexpected decision to invite cooperation with the outside world. The reasons for the initial emphasis on the exploration of the offshore basins with the cooperation of foreign oil companies are again supposition on my part, but probably involved considerations of technical merit, ease of development and delivery to markets together with more sensitive issues such as controling the influence of foreign philosophies and values on the Chinese population by containing most foreign activity to the offshore. So within three years of the death of the great helmsman, China had developed a plan to involve foreign oil companies, both state and private, in a grand plan to rapidly increase the nations oil production. In fact, by this time, the first round of talks had been concluded and the first phase begun, and what a beginning. Some forty eight companies from thirteen countries had signed documents to participate formally in this world scale event. It was far easier to list those companies which did not participate than to list those which did. FOREIGN COMPANY INTEREST Why the rush by the world's oil industry to be involved in China? What was China offering which made everyone so anxious to join in? Again the answer is complex in detail, but principally involved a combination of factors which together caused this virtual stampede. Timing was a major element. Oil Companies, despite an ever increasing take by governments, were beginning to benefit. from the' rapid escalation of crude prices induced by OPEC and were looking for suitable areas to reinvest these funds. Producers

Jan 1, 1982

By Dewitt T. Ring

Reliable and detailed data covering the enormous number of wells drilled and the long historical production of the state, many of which were never recorded until recent years, render it impossible to gather statistical material suitable for the Institute's standardized form. The total production of crude oil in Ohio for the year was 3,654,503 bbl., which is less than the total production in the United States for the peak day of August 1937. For a period of eight years, from 1895 to 1902 inclusive, Ohio produced more oil than any other state. During the year, 1271 tests were drilled in the state, or 114 more than in 1936. Of these, 317 were oil wells, with an initial production of 7088 bbl., an average of 22.3 bbl. per well; 503 were gas wells, with an initial open flow of approximately 222,441 M cu. ft., or 443 M cu. ft. per gas well drilled; 451 were dry holes, that is, 35 per cent of the total completions. A number of factors account for the steady decline of oil production in Ohio. In the state, at the close of thc year, there were fewer than 28,122 producing oil wells. In 1936, there were 30,150 operated oil wells with an average yearly production per well of 126 bbl. The production for 1937 averaged 130 bbl. per well. During the year, 2028 oil wells were abandoned. In other words, old wells are being abandoned more than six times faster than new ones are being drilled. Since the inception of the oil and gas industry in Ohio, between 150,000 and 160,000 wells have been drilled in the state; new potential territory, offering desirable locations for either oil or gas, is becoming increasingly more difficult to find; the dry-hole percentage will continue to increase. Prices Another factor directly affecting the crude situation during the year was the matter of price and proration of Pennsylvania grade oil. The posted price for Pennsylvania grade in Ohio on June 7 was $2.37 per barrel; at the close of the year, it was $1.70 per barrel, or a reduction of 28 per cent in price. In addition to this price cut, a 50 per cent pro-

Jan 1, 1938

By T. Egleston

THE direct process for the manufacture of iron which is principally used in the United States, in New York and New Jersey, is called the Jersey forge, the Champlain forge, the Catalan forge, the Bloomary forge or fire, and sometimes a Forge fire. Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, who has discussed the process as applied to the beach sands of Canada as well as to ores, in the Report of the Canadian Geological Survey for 1867-69, has shown that the name of Catalan forge is incorrect, as this process in no way resembles the Catalan, but is really the old German bloomary modified by long use in this country. Dr. Hunt gives the probable history of the introduction of the process into the United States, and a series of historic citations of great interest relating to it. Not¬withstanding the improvements which have been made in the construction of the furnace and its greater output, the process to-day, in all its essential features, is carried out as Karsten described it. It should now be known as the American Bloomary. The name of Jersey or Champlain forge or fire is not sufficiently distinctive. The name of Bloomary, by which the process is usually distinguished, is objectionable, not because it is incorrect but because it is indefinite, as the Knobbling fires, which are a very slight modification of the Walloon process, for making blooms either from pig iron or by sinking scrap, are also called Bloomaries, and although Knobbling fires are only used in a few localities where charcoal pig is made, and special grades of charcoal-refined blooms are required, one does not, without an explanation, know whether the blooms are being manufactured from ore or pig. The name Forge fire is equally indefinite, as it might just as well apply to any of the five direct methods of making blooms which have been in use in Europe, but which have now mostly gone out of date. The Dame of American Bloomary, however, is the one which most completely describes it, and is the one least open to objection. The names of German, Jersey, and Champlain bloomary are too local, and these adjectives are thought unnecessary by those who use the process, and we shall not therefore describe it under any of these names, but as the American Bloomary process. * Read at the Montreal meeting, September, 1879.

Jan 1, 1880

By J. P. Nielsen

When two grains in a polycrystalline specimen meet at a point in the course of grain-boundary movements, and the new boundary created at the point is one of relatively low specific free energy, a nonequilibrium boundary condition occurs. The nonequilibrium is enhanced if the other grain boundaries involved at the point of meeting are relatively high in specific free energy. The nonequilibrium results in a correction by growth of the complex grain (two subgrains) to a large size, sufficient in many cases for it to become a self-propagating unit, i.e., a recrystallization grain. This mechanism, herein called "geometrical coalescence," is proposed as a logical origin for recrystallization nuclei, particularly for secondary recrystallization. RECENT publications1-' indicate that considerable progress has been made toward a complete understanding of the three microstructural processes in metals: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. However, a major problem persists, namely, the origin of recrystallization nuclei. It is generally accepted that once a recrystallization nucleus, a secondary recrystallization nucleus particularly, has reached a certain size, it will continue to grow at the expense of its neighbors, simply as a consequence of grain-boundary free-energy considerations. What has remained obscure, however, is the mechanism whereby such a nucleus comes into being and grows to the self-propagating size. Recrystallization Nucleation in a Two-Dimensional Grain-Boundary System In the left portion of Fig. 1 is shown schematically the meeting of grains 1 and 4 on disappearance of boundary 2-3, i.e., the boundary that existed between grains 2 and 3, as might happen in the course of normal grain-boundary migration. If, by chance —and the probability is not necessarily small— grains 1 and 4 are close together in their mutual orientations, or in some other special way mutually oriented so that the new common boundary has relatively a very low specific free energy (hereinafter referred to by s), then the grain boundary arrangement as depicted in the figure is highly unstable. This is particularly so if boundaries 1-3, 3-4, 4-2, and 2-1 are high in their s values. Assuming, for the sake of argument, that boundary 1-4 has a s equal to zero, and the s's of all the other boundaries present are equal to each other and constant, then the boundary arrangement on the right in Fig. 1 will be

Jan 1, 1955

Richard Moldenke, New Pork, N. P. (communication to the Secretary*):—Iu following the discussion of the specifications for cast-iron and finished castings, I mas strongly impressed with two points which might be ventilated to advantage more fully from the view of the practical foundry-man. First, the reasons why only silicon and sulphur were specified and not phosphorus, manganese and carbon; and second, why but little was said concerning the presence of iron oxide in the material.

Jan 1, 1905

By D. W. Fuerstenau

MEASUREMENT of zeta potentials is a useful tool to study the surface chemistry of minerals under flotation conditions.1,2 Because there is continued interest in this approach, the apparatus for obtaining zeta potentials of nonconducting solids by the streaming potential method is outlined here. Fig. 1 illustrates the streaming potential apparatus." The streaming potential cell or plug consists of two 24/40 standard ground joints (4) joined with a piece of pyrex tubing 60 mm long and 12 mm in diam (5). The electrodes are made of bright platinum disks 19 mm in diam and 1 mm thick through which 0.5-mm holes have been drilled (6). To the surface of each is welded a piece of 80-mesh platinum gauze. Each electrode is permanently mounted on the ends of the inner parts of the two standard joints by means of a platinum wire (7) which connects it to the tungsten seal at the end of the cell (8). For ease in cleaning and handling the apparatus, the streaming cell is fastened to the 500-ml reservoir flasks (1) by means of two 18/9 ball and socket joints (2). This particular arrangement permits passage of the solution in either direction through the plug of particles. Flow of solution can be stopped by a stopcock (3). One of the reservoir flasks has a large opening to permit insertion of either a thermometer or a pair of electrodes for measuring pH of solutions within the system. In making the experiments, the plug is filled with 48 to 65-mesh particles, but a layer of 28 to 35-mesh particles is placed at each electrode to prevent any of the finer particles from passing through holes in the electrodes. The assembled apparatus is shown schematically in Fig. 2. To eliminate CO2 from the solutions, all experiments are conducted in a nitrogen atmosphere. Nitrogen, used to drive solutions through the plug, is passed through a bottle of concentrated KOH solution to remove CO2 (9). A 9-liter ballast reservoir (10) is used to maintain a more nearly uniform pressure. A series of stopcocks controls the direction of flow nitrogen to the flasks (11). Tubes of as-carite prevent backflow of CO2 into the system (12). Driving pressure, which can be set at any desired value, is measured with either a water manometer (13) or a mercury manometer (14). Reservoir flasks have side arms for making pressure corrections for the difference in water levels in the flasks. Streaming potentials are measured by the circuit illustrated in Fig. 2. The electrodes from the plug are connected through mercury wells (15) to a reversing switch (16), which reverses the polarity of the electrodes depending on the direction of flow of solution through the plug. The streaming potential is measured with a Leeds and Northrup type K2 potentiometer (17). Proper choice of null instrument is important because Eq. 1 assumes that the current which escapes through the measuring instruments is negligible. An ordinary galvanometer cannot be used to determine the null point because

Jan 1, 1957

By T. W. Healy, P. Somasundaran, D. W. Fuerstenau

The flotation behavior of quartz in the presence of alkyl ammonium acetates as a function of alkyl chain length has been interpreted in terms of hemi-micelle formation at the solid-liquid interface. The van der Waals cohesive free energy that is responsible for hemi-micelle formation has been found from these results to be 1.0 kT per CH2 group. This is in excellent agreement with literature values obtained from research on the properties of micelles in bulk systems. Collectors of the type CH3(CH2)n-2CH2-P, where P is a polar group and n is the number of carbon atoms in the straight alkyl chain, will induce flotation of an appropriate mineral at lower concentrations as n increases. This reduction in collector concentration with increasing n has been reported for such systems as xanthates on sulfides1,2 and amines on quartz.' The effect of chain length of alkyl surfactants on such solution properties as conductivity,' surface tension,' and solubility6 and such interfacial properties of solids as contact angle7 and electrokinetic potential8 have received considerable attention, but only limited quantitative descriptions of the effects have been given. The electrokinetic studies of alkyl amine salts on quartz indicated that the solution concentration of collector at which the marked change in electrokinetic potential of quartz occurs decreases systematically as the length of the alkyl chain increases. The aim of the present work was to obtain a quantitative description in terms of current theories of flotation of the effect of the hydrocarbon chain of alkyl ammonium acetates on the flotation behavior of quartz. BASIC PRINCIPLES The marked changes in electrokinetic potentials of quartz in dodecylammonium acetate (DAA) solutions were postulated to result from the association of adsorbed collector ions into two-dimensional aggregates, called hemi-micelles.9 Subsequently, the rapid increase in flotation rate of quartz was shown to coincide with hemi-micelle formation." We would like to discuss briefly the concept of hemi-micelles in terms of recent interpretations of micelles in bulk solution. Micelle hypothesis: In dilute solutions, alkyl ammonium and related salts behave as ordinary strong electrolytes, but at a certain concentration there is a marked change in physical properties of the solutions, e.g., in equivalent conductance, transport number, freezing point lowering and viscosity. To account for these phenomena, McBainl1 introduced the concept of micelles, which are aggregates of long-chain ions. It is believed that the ionic heads of the constituent ions of the micelle are in contact with water, whereas the nonpolar groups turn away from it and are in contact with each other. Work must be done to bring these charged polar groups together, but energy is gained (i.e., so called van der Waals cohesive energy) when hydrocarbon chains are expelled from the water and allowed to associate. For a given polar group, the tendency to form micelles will therefore strongly depend on the hydrocarbon chain length. Theoretical treatments of micelle formation by Shinoda12 and Phillips13 and others lead to the following expression for the concentration at which micelles form (the critical micelle concentration or cmc) in aqueous solutions of long- chain electrolytes

Jan 1, 1964

By Karl Sundberg, Allen Nordstrom

Interesting results were recently obtained in geophysical prospecting at the Questa mine of the Molybdenum Corpn. of America in New Mexico. This paper describes that survey, which was carried out during October and November, 1927, by the Swedish American Prospecting Corpn. It is hoped that the paper will make it possible for the mining man to form an opinion of the applicability of geophysical prospecting under difficult conditions, showing, as it does, the results when prospecting for small small orebodies with comparatively poor conductivity, in a region of rough topography. Some principles underlying electromagnetic prospecting not known to be published previously will also be given in an elementary way, with special attention to the general structure of the electromagnetic field. Geological. Conditions at Questa The property is situated in the Taos range of the Rocky Mountains in northern New Mexico. About this region, L. C. Graton says:' The main range is made up of Pre-Cambrian granites, gneisses and schists but in the vicinity of Red River igneous rocks of later age are present almost to the exclusion of the older series. These younger rocks are divisible into two groups. The older of the two, probably Pre-Tertiary age, is represented by large intrusive masses of monzonite porphyry, usually containing considerable quartz. The more recent group comprises intrusive and probably effusive dark-colored andesites and coarse andesitic breccias, some of which contain fragments of the monzonite; there are also flows of rhyolite and beds of rhyolite breccia. The evidence regarding the relative age of the andesite and the rhyolite is not wholly satisfactory, but there is little doubt that the andesite is the older. The ore deposits, although occurring more commonly in the monzonite porphyry than in the rhyolite, nevertheless are believed to be genetically related to the rhyolite. They certainly cut the rhyolite or andesite in places, and hence fall in the late Tertiary. The molybdenite at the Questa mine occurs in veins in the alaskite granite porphyry belonging to the older part of the Pre-Tertiary eruptives. Overlying the granite porphyry is the granodiorite, capping the granite

Jan 1, 1929

In December, 1927, the Institute published two papers on the Brad-ford pool, which were presented at the New York meeting in 1928. Pamphlet copics may be obtained by writing to the Secretary's office for: Oil-field Waters of the Bradford Pool, by Paul D. Torrey. Technical Publicalion No. 38. Some Factors Influencing Production of Oil by Flooding in the Bradford and Allegany Fields, by Paul D. Torrey. Technical Publicaliol No. 39.

Jan 1, 1928

By John M. Rayburn

When plans were made for the new mine of the Allegheny-Pittsburgh Coal Co., Springdale, Pa., it was decided to operate on the room and pillar system, but not to have any extensive room development, the pillar work being done altogether on the retreat. On each room heading five rooms were to he driven advancing, while five pillars were being removed, so timed as to form a continuous pillar line, with all approaching

Jan 1, 1930

By John R. Don

In the South Island of New Zealand an unusually favorable opportunity is offered for the analysis of the older crystalline rocks, underlying the sedimentary rocks which form the "country" of the gold-deposits. The Manipori formation of this island, comprising the greater part of the mountainous district west of lakes Manipori and Te Anau, in Otago, consists of an enormous thickness (estimated by Professor Hutton1 at 160,000 ft.) of crystalline schists, gneiss, syenite, and syenitic gneiss, with associated masses of granite; the whole forming the most picturesque fart of New Zealand. The famous West Coast sounds occur in this formation. No paying auriferous lodes have been discovered in it; and for this reason an examination of the rocks is specially interesting here. Stelzner, Posepny, and others, who have criticised the conclusions of Sandberger, have laid great stress on the fact that all the silicates analyzed by him were taken from the vicinity of orebodies containing those heavy metals which he notes as occurring in the silicates of the country-rock; their contention being that these metals, supposed to occur as silicates in gneiss and other crystalline rocks, were really contained as sulphides, and were therefore impregnations from the neighboring orebodies. The same objection, whatever be its weight, might be urged with equal justice against Mr. Becker's derivation of the mercury and gold of the lodes of the Pacific Coast from' the granite underlying their country-rock. In the case of the

Jan 1, 1913

By C. E. Lesher

Coal has been fighting a rear-guard action since the last World War. The battle against competitive fuels has been largely guerilla warfare with more sniping within the ranks than of organized opposition. Oil and natural gas are the fuels that over these twenty odd years have driven coal backward and out of many profitable markets. Now, somewhat timidly, the coal industry is trying a new weapon; namely, Research, or let us more properly say, Organized Research. Engineers have been designing this weapon for many years, supported by those interested in coal, including some coal producers. A part of this pioneer work has been Fundamental Research, the Ph.D. kind that is over the heads of most of us. Another part has been aimed at immediate objectives and realizable profits, the practical, man-in-the-street sort. That is Industrial Research. Enough has been accomplished to make a fair exhibit, but whether this new weapon will have sufficient fire power to rout the opposition, whether the industry will really go into production and use it, the next few years will tell. Need foR Coal Research To utter "Research" is to use the modern magic word; to conjure up the miraculous—rubber from weeds; radar; magnesium from sea water; yes, even gasoline from coal. Research is a very general term. It means something different to every man. What is the coal industry seeking with its research; or what should it seek? And, specifically, how is it going about the job; and is it taking the best way? There are many who say that Coal has been asleep at the switch, while Oil and Gas have been taking the energy business. In an organized way this is true. Large-scale, privatelyfinanced research is just started in the Pennsylvania anthracite industry, and it is still a dream for bituminous coal. What has been done so far collectively is purely defensive; as, for instance, to improve mechanical devices for burning coal so as to be able to recover markets for house-heating fuel long since abandoned to oil and gas. To appreciate just how seriously bituminous coal has slipped back in the national economy in the past 2 5 years, one has only to recall that, in the last war the Navy required for its operations all the high-grade, low-volatile coal that could be produced, and that anthracite was withdrawn from the middle and northwest markets to keep the eastern seaboard warm. All coal was "rationed" by zones, if not to individuals. Now the Navy, the Armed forces and the Merchant Marine are propelled by oil and gasoline. Gasoline and heating oil are rationed to individuals. Production of all coal in this country in 1918 reached the historic figure of 678,200,-000 tons, and in 1943, after 25 years, it is expected to reach a special wartime total of 660,000,000 tons. Meanwhile, production of crude oil this year may exceed 1 ,500,000,000 bbl., and like that of natural gas, reach four times the amount produced in 1918.

Jan 1, 1944

By C. E. Lesher

Coal has been fighting a rear-guard action since the last World War. The battle against competitive fuels has been largely guerilla warfare with more sniping within the ranks than of organized opposition. Oil and natural gas are the fuels that over these twenty odd years have driven coal backward and out of many profitable markets. Now, somewhat timidly, the coal industry is trying a new weapon; namely, Research, or let us more properly say, Organized Research. Engineers have been designing this weapon for many years, supported by those interested in coal, including some coal producers. A part of this pioneer work has been Fundamental Research, the Ph.D. kind that is over the heads of most of us. Another part has been aimed at immediate objectives and realizable profits, the practical, man-in-the-street sort. That is Industrial Research. Enough has been accomplished to make a fair exhibit, but whether this new weapon will have sufficient fire power to rout the opposition, whether the industry will really go into production and use it, the next few years will tell. Need foR Coal Research To utter "Research" is to use the modern magic word; to conjure up the miraculous—rubber from weeds; radar; magnesium from sea water; yes, even gasoline from coal. Research is a very general term. It means something different to every man. What is the coal industry seeking with its research; or what should it seek? And, specifically, how is it going about the job; and is it taking the best way? There are many who say that Coal has been asleep at the switch, while Oil and Gas have been taking the energy business. In an organized way this is true. Large-scale, privatelyfinanced research is just started in the Pennsylvania anthracite industry, and it is still a dream for bituminous coal. What has been done so far collectively is purely defensive; as, for instance, to improve mechanical devices for burning coal so as to be able to recover markets for house-heating fuel long since abandoned to oil and gas. To appreciate just how seriously bituminous coal has slipped back in the national economy in the past 2 5 years, one has only to recall that, in the last war the Navy required for its operations all the high-grade, low-volatile coal that could be produced, and that anthracite was withdrawn from the middle and northwest markets to keep the eastern seaboard warm. All coal was "rationed" by zones, if not to individuals. Now the Navy, the Armed forces and the Merchant Marine are propelled by oil and gasoline. Gasoline and heating oil are rationed to individuals. Production of all coal in this country in 1918 reached the historic figure of 678,200,-000 tons, and in 1943, after 25 years, it is expected to reach a special wartime total of 660,000,000 tons. Meanwhile, production of crude oil this year may exceed 1 ,500,000,000 bbl., and like that of natural gas, reach four times the amount produced in 1918.

Jan 1, 1944

By E. A. Sondreal, P. H. Tufte

Flue gas desulfurization when burning western U.S. coals can be expected to be easier to achieve and less costly than when burning higher sulfur eastern and central coals. However, western coals cannot generally be burned in compliance with federal and state new source emission standards without some degree of control. Western coals and lignite represent about 20% of total U.S. recoverable reserves with 90% of that strip minable, and their production is predicted to increase from the 60 million tons mined in 1973 to 300 million tons in 1985. Most will be used for electric power generation, where low sulfur content is a paramount concern. Western coals are predominantly below 1% sulfur; low compared with typical values of 2 and 3% for eastern and central coals. Coal cleaning for removal of sulfur is not commercially practiced on Western coals, which typically contain half organic and half pyritic sulfur. A fraction of the pyrite sulfur could possibly be removed, but the

Jan 1, 1976

GENTLEMEN : Herewith are transmitted the reports of your Treasurer and the Chairmen of your standing committees on Admissions, Membership, Papers and Publications, and Library for the calendar year 1931. To these reports you are referred for further details of the year's activities. Finances.-Depressed industrial conditions prevailing throughout the year were reflected in a substantial decline in current revenue. Aside from interest on sundry special funds (but including that from the Life Membership, Library, and General Reserve Funds) total receipts amounted to $168,274, compared with $194,636 in 1930. The principal items of decrease were $17,000 in advertising income from the monthly magazine MINING AND METALLURGY, and about $9,600 in dues and initiation fees. Of this shrinkage $4,000 is accounted for by decrease in the number of new members enrolled; and $5,600 by diminished income from current dues and arrearages. This naturally has coincided with an \ increase in delinquency and "drops" or suspensions for nonpayment of dues. The decline in advertising income, amounting to 38 per cent as compared with that of 1930, in general paralleled the experience of all technical and trade publications; and it is problematical whether 1932 will show as large a return from advertising as did 1931.

Jan 1, 1932

By Gen-Hua Shi, William Boyle, Richard E. Goodman

This keynote paper calls attention to two critically important issues relating to selecting supports for excavations in hard rock. The first is the proportion of the ultimate sliding volume that needs to be stabilized by the support system. Some excavations can be imagined to liberate very large rock volumes, whose weight can not be assigned to supports without severe economic penalty. Using the keyblock principle, it is argued that only the most critically oriented and finite blocks right on the periphery of the opening have to be supported; if these are retained by the support system, or by self resistance due to friction on the sliding faces, then the blocks behind will remain in place. As all concepts, this one has bounds and limits. Since the keyblock analysis for rock engineering is very new, these limits are not yet understood ... The second issue is the degree to which possibly stabilizing forces associated with the in-situ stress field ought to be accepted as support for potential keyblocks. It is shown that the initial stress can be effective in stabilizing rock wedges whose faces are nearly perpendicular to the excavation surface. It is too early to decide this issue but important to consider it.

Jan 1, 1982

By D. Jeulin

For iron ore sinters to be good blast furnace burden, they need to possess certain basic properties such as cold mechanical strength, reducibility, etc. Relations between such basic parameters and sintering parameters (composition of the mix, fuel consumption, operating conditions of the sintering plant, etc.) are not always well understood. For example, one cannot explain the differences in quality noticed for sinters having the same chemical composition. In this paper a new approach is proposed for the characterization of iron ore sinters by a quantitative description of their morphology. The Texture Analyzer LEITZ T.A.S. is used for this purpose and such morphological parameters as sizes of microstructures and the size distribution of phases are measured on samples of sinters. The results indicate that these measurements can be correlated with the sinter quality.

Jan 1, 1977

NEW MEMBERS. The following list comprises the names of those persons who became members during the months of July and August, 1913: Members. ALDERSON, VICTOR C., Prest. of Colorado School of Mines :.Golden, Colo. ALLEN, JOSEPH W., Secy. & Treas. International S. & R. Co;, 42 Broadway, New York, N. Y. AMMON, ROBERT, Chief Sampler B. & M. Reduction Wks., Anaconda Copper Min.Co., Great Falls, Mont. BARBER, RAYMOND J., Min. Engr 234 Newbury St., Boston, Mass. BARDWELL, EARL S., Genl. Concen rator Foreman Boston & Mont. Reduction Plant, Great Falls; Mont.

Jan 9, 1913

By George T. Wickes

Several years ago, Mr. Robert A. Cook described and illustrated in our Transactions a mechanical coke-drawer, patented in 1891 by Mr. Thomas Smith of the Thorncliff Iron Works, Sheffield, England, and first introduced in the United States in 1896, at the coking-plant of the Latrobe Coal Co., Latrobe,Pa. This machine has not received any very extended application in this country, although it was successfully used in two places for a number of years. The present paper describes a new and simpler machine, containing few wearing-parts, and capable of withstanding continued rough usage. Anything which tends to prolong the general use of bee-hive ovens will be welcome to those who are interested in cheapening the cost of producing coke in such ovens, especially if it provides satisfactory mechanical means, replacing the hard labor involved in drawing coke by hand with the old-fashioned " duck bill." The difficulty of finding efficient coke-drawers, especially during the summer season, and in the South, is notorious. Yet, notwithstanding the great improvements that have

Jan 1, 1906

By R. S. McClellan

In order to meet the ever-increasing demand by consumers for uniformity of ground talc, a new method of blending its finished product has been developed by Gouverneur Talc Company, Inc., at its plant near Gouverneur, N. Y. The method has been in use for a sufficient length of time to be now judged a success. The Gouverneur district is the leading talc producing area of the world, inasmuch as more tonnage is produced there than from any other state in the U.S. or, so far as is known, from any other locality in the world. Almost all of the output goes into industrial uses, with ceramics and paint being the principal consuming industries. The physical and chemical specifications imposed by these industries are stringent and the trend, as in most industries, is toward ever increasing severity. The blending method described herein has aided Gouverneur Talc to keep up with this trend.

Jan 3, 1961