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By Roy F. Abernethy

This publication by the Federal Bureau of Mines contains the free-swelling indexes for 2,812 samples of coal received from January 26, 1948, to July 15, 1957, and the Hardgrove grindability indexes for 2,339 samples of coal received from June 23, 1947, to July 15, 1957. These data consist of the origin of the sample, bed name, and analysis. Summaries show the high, low, and average values for each bed. The free-swelling index is a relative measure of the caking properties of a coal when burned on a grate, and the Hardgrove grindability index is used to estimate the relative ease of grinding coals. Development and standardization of these test procedures were at a much later date than those for the more familiar tests, such as proximate and ultimate analyses and calorific value determinations. The newer tests are valuable in supplying supplemental information, particularly for assisting in evaluating coals used in certain types of combustion processes.4/ Data from such tests are important to designers of burning equipment, operating engineers, and purchasing agents. Data from these newer tests are scarce and scattered through a number of publications. Special projects were started to determine the free-swelling and grindability indexes, in addition to the regular analyses on the tipple samples collected by Bureau engineers. Since the start of these special projects, all the coal fields of commercial importance have been adequately covered in the sampling program.

Jan 1, 1961

By K. Rajamani

The word adapt means "to change so that one's behavior will conform to new or changed circumstances." Applying this definition to process controllers suggests that an adaptive controller can change its behavior in response to changes in the dynamics and disturbances of the process. In the minerals industry there are many control cases where adaptive control will provide superior control as compared with more traditional PID (proportional, integral, derivative) control. A typical plant uses as many as 100 to 200 control loops for lprocess regulation. Therefore, the task of initially tuning and then periodically retuning these controllers is a formidable problem, During the time the controllers are "un-tuned", product quality may deteriorate and unstable operations may result. Adaptive controllers are capable of tuning themselves, thus avoiding this problem. The computers commonly used in distributed control systems are easily capable of implementing adaptive controllers. In addition to the possibility of using the control computer to implement adaptive controllers, many distributed control systems will offer adaptive control as a standard feature in the near future.

Jan 1, 1984

By Jafar Safarian, Leiv Kolbeinsen, Stian Seim, Hossein Salehi

The present work aims to investigate the link between the oxidation and reduction of a weathered ilmenite concentrate in terms of phase transitions, microstructural changes, and element distribution. An ilmenite concentrate sample was pelletized and fired at 1000 °C in air, and as a result, the pellets were oxidized. The oxidized pellets were reduced by hydrogen gas at 1000 °C, which yielded almost complete metallization of the iron content of the pellets. The ore and the pellets were characterized in each step by XRD and SEM techniques, and distribution of elements and phases were investigated. Ilmenite, pseudorutile, and rutile were the main phases detected in the ilmenite concentrate sample, and depending on the weathering degree of the particles, different fractions of the phases were identified in their microstructure. It was found that irregular rutile grains dispersed in a pseudobrookite matrix is the morphology of the oxidized ilmenite phase. However, increasing microcracks and porosities were the only microstructural changes in the pseudorutile phase after oxidation in air. Studying the specific types of the ore particles and their oxidized and reduced forms indicated that the phase distribution in the ilmenite ore particles dictates the phase distribution in the oxidized and reduced ones. Results show that the morphology of the reduced particles includes a titanium (III) oxide matrix in which reduced iron globules are dispersed.

Feb 8, 2021

By L. E. Cardwell

This publication contains routine analyses and related source data for 299 natural gas samples from 22 States and three foreign countries. All of the samples were collected during calendar year 1972 as part of a continuous survey of the free world for occurrences of helium in natural gas. This survey has been conducted in the United States by the Bureau of Mines since 1917. In late 1965, the survey was expanded to include foreign gasfields. The analyses published herein were made by mass spectrometer and a special helium analysis apparatus, which are described in Bureau of Mines Bulletins 4863 and 576.4 Fourteen previous publications have presented the results of 9,902 gas analyses prior to 1972. The first three, Bulletins 486,5 576,6 and 617,7 contain analyses and related source data on 5,218 gas samples collected from

Jan 1, 1973

By N. Kanari

Chalcopyrite concentrates and their pure constituents were chlorinated by C12+N2 between 25 °C and 750 °C. The reaction products were analyzed by SEM, XRD and chemical analysis. The effect of gas flow rate and chlorine content of the gas mixture on the reaction rate were investigated. At room temperature, these solids start to react with chlorine giving metal and sulfur chlorides. Complete reaction is achieved at about 300 °C and the iron and sulfur chlorides were fully volatilized. The chlorination residue is composed of valuable metals' chlorides. A simplified flow - sheet for the treatment of chalcopyrite concentrates by chlorine was suggested.

Jan 1, 1998

By J. E. Murphy, Y. Topkaya, R. E. Johnson, B. R. Palmer, D. K. Dysinger, R. B. Bhappu, A. E. Clark

The U.S. Bureau of Mines utilized a central composite experimental design to investigate leaching kinetics of pure chalcopyrite in the sulfuric acid-oxygen system. The six factors studied were oxygen pressures of 150, 300 and 450 PSI, leach temperatures of 35O, 65O, and 95O C, oxygen-to-chalcopyrite mass ratios of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5, leach times of 8, 16 and 24 hours, initial acid strengths of 0.6, 1.2 and 1.8 g H,SO,/g chalcopyrite and pyrite to chalcopyrite mass ratios of 0, 1, and 2. Chemical analysis and oxygen consumption measurements indicatedthat leaching occurs through three consecutive reactions. Temperature was the primary determinant of leach rate and solution acidity was the primary determinant of oxygen consumption, sulfur oxidation, and activation energy.

Jan 1, 1993

By D. A. R. Kay

Phase stability diagrams are used to predict the abilities of lanthanum and cerium oxides to desulfurize coal gasification products in the temperature range 800-1000 C. Results of desulfurization studies in laboratory fixed bed reactors illustrate the effects of i) sorbent preparation, ii) input gas quality and iii) temperature, on the desulfurization reaction. 2CeO(2-x)(s) + H2S(g) + (1-2x)H2 = Ce2O2S(s) + 2(1x)H2O(g) The results of desulfurization/oxidation regeneration cycles are also reported.

Jan 1, 1989

By Allen S. Smith

Analysis of the helium content of a natural gas presents more than the usual difficulties encountered in applying the thermal-conductivity method because of the relatively small amounts of this inert as present and the wide variation in the other constituents. However, the numerous advantages of this method and its adaptability to Continuously recording and control instruments make it worthy of consideration. A specific application of the method described yields quantitative results only when used with gas mixtures of known qualitative compositions which Vary within predetermined limits. Periodic analyses for the helium content of a producing gas well may be conveniently made by an absorption method, and a continuums analytical method is not necessary for this purpose. Natural gas containing 1.75 to 1.90 percent of helium produced from Government-owned wells is processed in the Amarillo (Texas) Helium Plant of the Bureau of lanes. The helium extracted in the plant is supplied to the Army and Navy, and the processed natural gas is sold to a commercial gas company. As complete recovery of the helium in the raw material is not economically practicable, the processed gas contains 0.1 to 0.3 percent of helium, depending upon conditions of operation. Production is checked against the helium removed from the gas, which before the installation of the thermal-conductivity apparatus was calculated from the analysis of a cumulative sample of the processed gas. As conditions of operation affect the residual helium content to a large extent, a composite sample was an uncertain index of the efficiency of the process.

Jan 1, 1934

By Peter Silveston, Earl Shannon

Process-oriented experiments on the use of coal as an adsorbent for certain soluble components of sewage are described. The capacity of Canadian coals for these components was less than 0.1 per cent by weight for the highest concentration at which these components could be expected to be found in domestic sewage. This is much less than values reported in the past. A pronounced selectivity between components was observed. Experiments on bacteria removal in beds of coal, regeneration of spent coal to restore adsorption capacity and COD contributions of coal are reported in the paper. The simple application of coal as an adsorbent does not seem promising.

Jan 1, 1970

By C. H. Bertoni

"The Superior Province of the Canadian Shield is the largest gold producing area within Archean greenstone rocks in the world, with total production of over 140 million ounces of gold. One hundred and fifty-five mines have individually produced more than 8,000 ounces, although only a relatively limited number of deposits (33) produced more than one million ounces of gold. The output from these 33 deposits accounts, however, for 85% of total gold production. The majority of grades (68%) ranges between 0.10 and 0.30 ounce per ton, and there is no linear relationship between grade and tonnage.Development of new gold mines reflects the history of gold prices. However, the response to the latest increase in gold prices was not as marked. It is concluded that gold deposits are becoming increasingly more difficult to find and new exploration techniques are urgently required.IntroductionWith most of its production coming out of the Superior Province, the Canadian Shield is the largest producer of gold from Archean greenstone rock s in the world. In total gold production, the Superior Province is surpassed only by the paleo-placers of Witwatersrand and the placers of the USSR (Anhaeusser, 1976). There has been no attempt so far to compile the historical production of the Province as a whole in a single document. The aim of this work is to fill this gap, not only for the convenience of having a complete list of gold producers, but, more importantly, as a basis on which to study the tonnage and grade characteristics of these deposits."

Jan 1, 1983

By G. E. McElroy, A. S. Richardson

"Experiments in the determination of friction factors for fan-pipe installations were carried on in a Butte mine during the fall and winter of 1922-23, under a cooperative agreement between the Bureau of Mines and the Anaconda Ccpper Mining Co. The results have been summarized in a separate paper,*** and this report, which is one of several giving more detailed data, discusses the methods used and the application of the results to fan-pipe practice.The use of canvas and galvanized-iron pipe, 8 to 20 inches in diameter, with small fans, usually electrically driven blowers, is an important factor in the ventilation of metal mines and is increasing in coal mines and long tunnels. In the Matte district the standard installation is an electrically driven small blower fan and 8 to 16 inch canvas pipe.The application of available data on friction losses in sheet-metal pipe to mine installations was doubtful, and very little has been published on canvas pipe, except general statements that the friction looses are greater than in galvanized-iron pipe. Experiments by Weeks and others,**** who determined friction losses under laboratory conditions for a few typical materials used in mine equipment, supported the statements.In 1918, one of the authors (Richardson) conducted tests for the Anaconda Copper Mining Cc. on the friction losses in canvas-pipe systems and the beet type of centrifugal blower for use with such pipe lines. He obtained the average total resistance per unit of length in use, without reference to the variable conditions of the lines. The results were of great value in developing more efficient equipment for average service conditions, and indicated that average friction losses for the commercial canvas tubing then used by the company were equal to or lees than these given for galvanized-iron pipe. Later on, the particular canvas tested was discarded for a heavier and more service-material."

Oct 1, 1923

By Monique Nykamp

"INTRODUCTIONTerminal 46 is located just south of downtown Seattle, and is one of the Port of Seattle’s busiest container terminals. The Terminal 46 Redevelopment Project was undertaken to replace the existing 15-m-wide (50 ft) cranes along the apron with 30-m-wide (100 ft) cranes, which can unload larger, post- Panamax ships. The project included upgrading the existing waterside crane rail with new piles and constructing a new land-side rail behind the sheetpile bulkhead. The new piles had to be installed adjacent to the existing apron without causing damage, which was a signifi cant geotechnical challenge due to the soft soil conditions at the site. An instrumentation program performed during the test pile program evaluated this challenge and allowed for the development of specifi c production pile installation procedures that had the least possible effect on construction costs and schedule. SITE HISTORYThe site lies along the west side of Elliott Bay, north of the mouth of the Duwamish Waterway. Prior to development, this area was part of the tide fl ats where the Duwamish River drained into Elliott Bay. Prior to 1970, there were several existing timber piers and structures in the area. In the 1970s, the Port of Seattle constructed a 900-m-long (3,000 ft), 30- m-wide (100 ft) apron to support fi ve, 15-m-wide (50 ft) container cranes. The contained backland area was then fi lled with dredged spoils (sand and silt with organics) and the upper 5 to 20 m (16 to 65 ft) backfi lled with sand and gravel.The existing apron was constructed using 0.4 m (16 in) octagonal prestressed concrete piles to support the precast concrete deck and crane rails. The pile-supported bents were spaced at 6.1 m (20 ft), center-to-center, along the longitudinal direction. Pile lengths typically varied from about 20 to 40 m (65 to 130 ft) with 15 to 26 m penetration below mudline (50 to 85 ft penetration). The slope below the apron was constructed at about 1.75 horizontal to 1 vertical to allow for suffi cient water depth for cargo ships. In most areas, a riprap buttress was placed at the toe of the slope. A typical cross section of the apron is shown on Figure 2.Several stability, settlement and pile driving issues arose during the original construction of T-46 (Pita, 1983). Reportedly, movement of the submarine slope occurred during pile driving, resulting in settlement behind the bulkhead. Pile driving reportedly caused settlement of adjacent piles. In addition, some piles were “running” (dropping quickly under one hammer blow) during installation."

Jan 1, 2007

By Monique Nykamp

"INTRODUCTIONTerminal 46 is located just south of downtown Seattle, and is one of the Port of Seattle’s busiest container terminals. The Terminal 46 Redevelopment Project was undertaken to replace the existing 15-m-wide (50 ft) cranes along the apron with 30-m-wide (100 ft) cranes, which can unload larger, post- Panamax ships. The project included upgrading the existing waterside crane rail with new piles and constructing a new land-side rail behind the sheetpile bulkhead. The new piles had to be installed adjacent to the existing apron without causing damage, which was a signifi cant geotechnical challenge due to the soft soil conditions at the site. An instrumentation program performed during the test pile program evaluated this challenge and allowed for the development of specifi c production pile installation procedures that had the least possible effect on construction costs and schedule.SITE HISTORYThe site lies along the west side of Elliott Bay, north of the mouth of the Duwamish Waterway. Prior to development, this area was part of the tide fl ats where the Duwamish River drained into Elliott Bay. Prior to 1970, there were several existing timber piers and structures in the area. In the 1970s, the Port of Seattle constructed a 900-m-long (3,000 ft), 30- m-wide (100 ft) apron to support fi ve, 15-m-wide (50 ft) container cranes. The contained backland area was then fi lled with dredged spoils (sand and silt with organics) and the upper 5 to 20 m (16 to 65 ft) backfi lled with sand and gravel.The existing apron was constructed using 0.4 m (16 in) octagonal prestressed concrete piles to support the precast concrete deck and crane rails. The pile-supported bents were spaced at 6.1 m (20 ft), center-to-center, along the longitudinal direction. Pile lengths typically varied from about 20 to 40 m (65 to 130 ft) with 15 to 26 m penetration below mudline (50 to 85 ft penetration). The slope below the apron was constructed at about 1.75 horizontal to 1 vertical to allow for suffi cient water depth for cargo ships. In most areas, a riprap buttress was placed at the toe of the slope. A typical cross section of the apron is shown on Figure 2.Several stability, settlement and pile driving issues arose during the original construction of T-46 (Pita, 1983). Reportedly, movement of the submarine slope occurred during pile driving, resulting in settlement behind the bulkhead. Pile driving reportedly caused settlement of adjacent piles. In addition, some piles were “running” (dropping quickly under one hammer blow) during installation."

Jan 1, 2007

By John Stewart

The market at present supplied by shipments from the phosphate districts of Quebec, Ontario, and New York State requires high-grade ore, carrying from 75 per cent. to 90 per cent. of phosphate of lime. In sorting out such material by hand, much valuable phosphate is necessarily left in the "culls" or refuse, besides which, much phosphate-rock of low-grade is not now mined at all, because it cannot be made available by the crude method of cobbing and hand-sorting. The utilization of such material, which would, of course, greatly benefit this industry, requires either a mechanical separation or a chemical process which would concentrate the phosphate in a form suitable for agriculture. Considering the rich phosphate now shipped as the first class, we may arrange the lower grades in three classes, as follows: Second Class.—Cull-ore from the first class, and the mass of deposits having, as gangue, pyroxene or hornblende. The following table gives the hardness and specific gravity of the minerals concerned: Hardness Spec. gravity. Apatite,....... . 5 3.1 to 3.25 Crystalline limestone (pink calcite),. 3 to 4 2.5 to 2.9 Pyroxene,..5 to 6 3.23 to 3.5 Hornblende,.5 to 6 2.9 to 3.4 Feldspar (orthoclase),. .. . 6 to 6.5 2.5 to 2.6 It is evident that when pyroxene and hornblende are present in large proportions, this ore cannot be successfully concentrated by crushing and jigging. It may be reduced to fine powder by successive treatment in a rock-breaker and a Sturtevant or Frisbee-Lucop mill, or other suitable apparatus, and in this condition it could be largely used by applying it freely upon exhausted clay soils, such as occur in Quebec and Ontario. The occupants of these once fertile river-lands are, however, hard to move in the direction of such improvements. When water-power is at hand, the cost of crushing

Jan 1, 1893

By Hairong Zeng, Matthew Baumann, Shahram Tafazoli, Edmond Chow

Measurement of rock fragmentation has evolved from a completely subjective and manual process to a statistically objective and semi-automated process. However, ultimately, the vision is to achieve a statistically representative and fully-automated process. From the blast optimization perspective, it is critical to receive reliable rock fragmentation results quickly to incorporate into the planning of subsequent blasts. Since manual rock fragmentation measurement methods tend to be time consuming, a fully-automated method is the practical way to meet these requirements.

Jan 1, 2012

By Eric D. Jamieson

"How well is the Canadian coal industry able to expand in the tough competition with other fuels in Canada and with other suppliers in the international, metallurgical and thermal coal trade? Coal production as a whole decreased between 1950and 1960 and, although there has been a tripling of production since then, underground production continued to decrease until 1975. This trend has been reversed to a certain extent as a result of the modernization of mines in Cape Breton, but in 1978 over 85% of coal production came from surface mining.Against this background, the paper reviews current Canadian mining operations as described in papers presented at the 1979 CIM Annual General Meeting. Conclusions are then drawn regarding some of the longer-term mining applications in relation to the latest coal demand forecast, which indicates a potential Canadian production requirement of 160 million tonnes per year by 2000. IntroductionThe Canadian 'coal industry is experiencing a period of expansion and a new record for production is set with each passing year. This growth pattern over the last IS years has been based on two main markets-the generation of electricity in Canada and the export of coking coal to Japan. Supply to those markets has entailed either the development of mining, coal preparation and transportation systems for the delivery of large volumes of products with predetermined specifications or the establishment of minesite plants designed specifically to suit the characteristics of the coal in the adjacent deposits (Fig. I).Coal is a low-value commodity in relation to its bulk, and the economics of coal use become progressively less attractive with increasing distance from the producing mine. The transportation component in the export trade and in the movement of western coal to Ontario is a major cost factor. In the latter case, it approaches the cost of coal produced at the mine. In addition, the .international competition among coking coal producers chasing diminishing markets in a worldwide steel recession as well as the competition from U.S. coals and other fuel s for Canadian thermal coal have introduced a tight set of parameters to govern mining practices in all parts of the country. Some appreciation of the required changes in mining techniques brought about by declining traditional markets and the rigorous demands of the new bulk markets can be gained by comparing production from surface and underground mines over the past 25 years (Fig . 2)."

Jan 1, 1980

By Jafar Safarian, Manish Kumar Kar, Ahmad Hassanzadeh, Casper van der Eijk

To minimize the carbon footprint in the industrial valourization of bauxite residue, hydrogen was used as a reducing agent. The current study experimentally investigated hydrogen reduction of bauxite residue-CaO sintered and self-hardened pellets at 1000 °C, along with magnetic separation of these reduced pellets for iron recovery. Calcium was introduced to bauxite residue to form leachable calcium aluminate phases with the existing alumina in bauxite residue. This involved the addition of either CaCO3 or a mixture of CaO and CaCO3 while maintaining the fixed Ca content during pelletization. The former underwent sintering at 1150 °C, while the latter was self-hardened through the cementing effect of CaO in exposure to moisture and air. Both types of pellets were reduced in a thermogravimetry furnace at an elevated temperature under similar conditions. The pellets were characterized by the X-ray diffraction (XRD) method and scanning electron microscope (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and their physical and mechanical properties were measured via standard techniques. During hydrogen reduction, a negligible amount of gehlenite ( Ca2Al2SiO7) was formed in the self-hardened pellets, while this phase dominated in the sintered pellets. Alumina in the bauxite residue converted to mayenite phases during reduction in both the pellet types; however, reduced self-hardened pellets had a higher amount of alumina containing mayenite leachable phase. The two pellets showed similar reduction behaviour, while different chemical, physical, and mechanical properties were observed. The magnetic properties of milled reduced pellets were examined through a Davis Tube magnetic separator in a wet environment under a constant magnetic field of 800 G. Higher iron recovery was observed for the self-hardened reduced (41%) pellets than for the sintered pellets (27%).

Nov 23, 2023

By Bráulio Campagnaro Santana

Na indústria da mineração, a liga Fe-Cr-C destaca-se como um revestimento duro em chapas de desgaste objetivando aumentar a vida útil do ativo. Três ligas, duas delas contendo Fe-Cr-C, sendo uma com aproximadamente 28% (p) de Cr e outra com 38% (p) de Cr e uma terceira liga com 24% (p) de Cr e 7,0% (p) de Nb foram levadas a ensaios de desgaste abrasivo roda de borracha conforme norma ASTM G65-04, além de medições de dureza, microdureza e caracterizações microestruturais. Constatou-se que os revestimentos contendo Nb, depositados com uma ou duas camadas de solda, possuem maior resistência ao desgaste abrasivo, seguidos pelos com maior teor de Cr. Os revestimentos que possuem maior fração volumétrica de carbonetos, finamente distribuídos na matriz, apresentaram os melhores resultados na resistência ao desgaste. Analisando no microscópio confocal 3D os revestimentos contendo Cr, notou-se que os mecanismos de desgaste são do tipo microcorte e microssulcamento, enquanto naqueles contendo nióbio prevalece o desgaste por rolamento em boa parte da superfície. A liga contendo Nb apresenta o melhor desempenho na resistência ao desgaste abrasivo em relação às demais, e se torna viável economicamente sua aplicação na indústria.

Oct 30, 2017

By Morris Wong

"An antimony-bearing gold ore was studied in a cyanide slurry containing 7 -20 ppm dissolved oxygen. 1 g/L NaCN at pH 9.5 and 48 hours retention time is required to extract 94 % of the gold from the 90 % minus 200 mesh ore by conventional cyanidation at a 7 ppm O2. As oxygen concentration was increased to 20 ppm, the conditions required to extract the same amount of gold were: 0.25 g/L NaCN, 16 hours retention time and 80% minus 200 mesh. Compared to conventional cyanidation, oxygen-enriched leaching was shown to reduce retention time by three times and cyanide consumption by four times. The kinetics of gold dissolution related to the dissolved oxygen concentration in slurry was expressed by following equation:XAu = 100 * (Kt + I0) / (1 + Kt + I0)where XAu is the percentage gold extraction; t is the retention time; K and Io are the slope and the intercept of the plot of XAu I (100 -XAu) vs. t respectively. The values of Kand Io depend upon the concentrations of cyanide and oxygen, the fineness of grind and the origin of ore sample etc.. A preliminary cost analysis was also performed to justify the use of oxygenating slurries.IntroductionGeneral:It was proposed almost 149 years ago (Elsner 1846) that oxygen is required for the dissolution of gold in cyanide solution. However, little attention were paid to oxygen application in the gold milling industry during the following one hundred years. Due to the constraints of gold price, reagent costs, refractory ores, and environmental issues in the past decade, the oxygen enhancement in the cyanidation process was introduced to the gold milling industry for increasing operation efficiency, reducing production costs, and meeting the requirement of environmental standard.The advantages of oxygen-enriched cyanidation have been reviewed by several investigators (Hague 1992, Jara et al 1992, Henderson 1989, Loroesch et al 1988, Elmore 1987, Cathro 1963). Common to all conclusions are the following advantages."

Jan 1, 1995

By G. Laird, N. B. Gray, N. Lawson

"Photographic, video, laser, hot film and conductivity methods are used in the experimental study of gas-liquid flows. A discussion of their capabilities and limitations are given in this paper illustrating the wide range of phenomena that can be studied. Most of these methods are limited to physical models at room temperature with transparent fluids, although they can be extended for use with opaque and hot fluids. A number of these techniques have been used by the GKW CRC in studies on industrial plants and their usage is increasing although a number of technical difficulties still need to be overcome. An in-depth discussion of the laser doppler anemometry (LDA) and particle image velocimetry (PIV) methods is given with experimental results on the flow field of an air plume in water based on advanced development of the techniques and studies carried out at the GKW CRC. The LDA method provides high resolution data on the velocity profiles, while the PIV method provides an overall view of the complex flow structure occurring at the gas-liquid regions. These two methods complement each other in providing experimental data for validating numerical models and exploring the complexities of multi phase flows.IntroductionThe injection of gases into melts is an important operation in the metallurgical industry. It is used in converters, anode furnaces, blast furnaces, ladles, bath smelters, zinc fumers and many other smelting processes. In many of these processes, the gas is injected into a molten bath resulting in the formation of bubbles that promote reaction, mixing, alloying and heat transfer. The study of gas-liquid systems presents enormous challenges to the researcher due to the complexity of the mathematical and physical modelling which require innovative numerical and experimental skills."

Jan 1, 1996