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The Australian Coal Combustion Testing and Research Facility has been operating commercially for one year and during that period coal product evaluations have been conducted on behalf of four coal companies and one electricity commission. The facility is equipped to assess the behaviour of steaming coal in milling, combustion (including flame stability, burnout and heat transfer), ash deposition and erosion, fly ash collection and gaseous emissions. The relevance of the results of the pilot testing to industrial practice was demonstrated during the calibration of the facility using four coals burnt in Australian power stations. The calibration coals were from the Tarong and Gladstone Power Stations in Queensland, tluja Power Station in Western Australia and Bayswater Power Station in New South Wales. Also an opportunity arose to visit an overseas power station to observe a full scale test burn using one of the early coals tested on a commercial basis in the combustion test facility. The calibration trials showed excellent agreement with industrial coal performance in t:orms of flame stability, turndown, carbon burnout and gaseous emissions. Encouraging correlations were also found in the case of furnace radiation, boiler deposits (slagging and fouling) and electrostatic precipitation. In the case of the last group the only real reservations about the correlations are due to the non-availability or qualitative nature of results collected around the power stations. In all cases there is a high degree of confidence in the facility's ability to predict the relative performance of different coals and in some cases direct numerical predictions can be Made.

Jan 1, 1987

Gold is actively precipitating at grades up to 80 g/tonne at and near the surface of the Waiotapu geothermal system, located in the Taupo Volcanic Zone of New Zealand. Many characteristics of this active system makes it analogous to the environment deduced for epithermal precious metal mineralisation in the circum Pacific region.The near surface area of the geothermal system is approximately 17 km2, caused to an extent by the upflow of deep, neutral pH fluids being deflected into a lateral flow of several km. This fluid has pervasively altered the rhyolite pyroclastic and ash deposits to an assemblage generally characterised by the term propylitic; major vein mineralisation is not observed. The temperatures at the 1100 m limit of drilling are 300¦C, and decrease to the surface along a boiling point curve.Condensation of steam and H S (subsequently oxidised) at the surface (derived 2from deep boiling) results in the formation of heated acid sulphate waters. These have caused a shallow (50 m) cap of advanced argillic alteration. Mixing of this oxidised condensate with the deep neutral pH fluid appears to be the principle cause of gold deposition from thiosulphide complexes. The major focus of gold mineralisation is in Champagne Pool, a hot spring which fills one of several 900 year old hydrothermal eruption craters.

Jan 1, 1984

By A. E. J. Engel

INDUSTRIAL talcs and ground soapstones both include earth materials of different chemical and mineral compositions. In general, the industrial talcs are composed of silicates that contain appreciable amounts of magnesia. Generally talc, the mineral, is a predominant or at least common constituent. Talc, the mineral, is a hydrous magnesium silicate, with a suggested theoretical formula H2Mg3 (SiO3)4 or H2O.3MgO.4SiO2, which postulates 63.5 pct SiO2, 31.7 pct MgO, and 4.8 pct H20.11 Actually different single grains or leaves of pure talc have variations in water content ranging from 3.5 pct to more than 7 pct, as well as slight differences in the proportions of MgO and Si02.16 Only a very small percentage of the ground industrial talcs produced in the United States approaches the composition given above (see Table 1). The purer talcs invariably occur as alteration products of magnesium carbonate rocks. Some of these relatively pure talcs include compact, massive types largely mined in California, which are designated as steatite.38,58 In general, steatites cannot contain in excess of 1.5 pct CaO, 1.5 pct combined FeO and Fe203, and 4 pct A1203. The less pure varieties of massive talc and mixtures of magnesian silicates are commonly called soapstones, or merely talc. Many industrial earth products classified as talc or as soapstone contain a variety of minerals, especially serpentine (H4Mg,Si2O9), chlorites (hydrous magnesium, iron, aluminum silicates), tremolite (Ca2Mg5H2[SiO3]8), anthophyllite ([MgCa]SiO3), diopside (CaMg[SiO3]2), and quartz (SiO2). The carbonates calcite (CaC03), dolomite (CaMg[CO3]2), and magnesite (MgCO3) are also present in some industrial talcs and soapstones. Some of these minerals, as well as sulphides, sulphates, and iron and manganese oxides, if present at all or in excess of minute amounts, may alter the composition of the industrial talc sufficiently to restrict materially its use or to lower or destroy its value. These factors are discussed in a subsequent section of this chapter.

Jan 1, 1949

By C. Altstetter, Y. Huang, E. de Lamotte

Nitrogen was introduced into pure niobium (colutn-bium) and dilute Nb- Zr alloy wires by equilibration with pure nitrogen gas at high temperatures. Room-temperature hardness was correlated with the alloy composition, heat treatment, and microstructure. Hardness was found to be most sensitive to the amount of nitrogen in solution; however, a significant hardening up to 500 Dph look place upon aging of quenched alloys. A coarse dispersion of nitride did not significantly increase the hardness of the material though the nitride was found to have a hardness of 1400 Khn. BY now the marked effect of nitrogen on the properties of bcc refractorv metals is we ll-documented. There are few studies, however, in which the state of the solute has been carefully controlled. Indeed, the composition-temperature-pressure relationships in nitrogen-refractory metal systems have been determined precisely for only niobium and tantalum.'-4 Most investigations on niobium have dealt with alloys High-nitrogen alloys cleaved on (100) planes and had negligible ductility. Precipitation was found to occur in either a discontinuous or a continuous fashion, depending on the composition and cooling rates. Upon cooling, the precipitation first proceeded discontinu-ously by the nucleation of nilride needles at subbound-aries and subsequent growth of a two-phase microcon-stituent. At lower temperatures continuous precipitation occurred in the subgrain interior ahead of the discontinuous precipitation interface. containing nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen in significant but uncontrolled and, in several instances, undetermined amounts. Thus, there has been some uncertainty regarding the presence and the distribution of precipitates. This paper presents results which relate the hardness and microstructure to the heat treatment and nitrogen content of niobium and Nb-Zr alloys. Niobium rod* produced by the Wah Chang Corp.

Jan 1, 1968

By G Gibson, B Bessen

In coal preparation, large dense medium cyclones (DMC) at low pressure heads (typically 9D where D = cyclone diameter) are the norm. This contrasts with high density mineral applications where, largely for historical reasons, smaller cyclones at high heads are the standard. There are advantages in preferring large diameter cyclones at low heads, assuming that metallurgical performance does not suffer significantly. These include simpler plant layouts, easier maintenance, smaller spares inventories, reduced wear, reduced medium pumping demands, smaller buildings and overall lower capital and operating costs. In 2008, therefore, Xstrata Zinc decided to trial a single DSM-design 800 mm cyclone in one of its four DMC lines at Mt Isa, replacing the four 400 mm cyclones previously installed. Circumstances allowed a low head of 9.5 D to be trialled, compared with the existing 400 mm head of 21.5 D. This paper describes the trial, including tests using painted ore particles as tracers, estimates of yield and metal recovery, and wear monitoring. The larger unit performed well. There was no evidence that metallurgical performance in terms of metal recovery and waste reject rate suffered, and there was some evidence that it may have improved. Cyclone life increased, and preliminary data suggest that the replacement cost of the 800 mm cyclones is less than half that of the 400 mm units, and this is expected to improve. The plant layout and operability have also improved significantly. Xstrata has therefore decided to convert the whole plant to four low head 800 mm units, replacing the original 16 high head 400 mm units. The paper includes an explanation of the effect of static head on DMC separating force. It also reviews earlier research on diamond applications, and applies a general DMC process model to the Xstrata case, both of which confirm that large, low head cyclones are appropriate in mineral applications, contrary to conventional practice. Such units could significantly reduce both the capital and operating costs of DMC plants in mineral applications.

Jan 1, 2009

By W. Chubb

By measuring the hardness of metals at temperatures just above and just below their allotropic change point, it has been established that crystal structure has a real effect upon the strength of metals. The DPH of cobalt, iron, titanium, uranium, and zirconium have been measured at temperatures up to 1000°C. It was found that the body-centered-cubic crystal structure is always the softer structure when it is involved in an allotropic transformation. The close-packed and more complex structures are inherently harder, and may be expected, therefore, to be better base materials for high strength alloys. IT has been observed that for metals with nearly the same melting point (i.e., tin and lead, magnesium and aluminum) the metal with the more complex crystal structure has a higher tensile strength and hardness. It might be asked whether this effect is really caused by the difference in crystal structure; and, if so, just what is the contribution of crystal structure to the strength of these metals. A qualitative answer to these questions can be obtained by measuring the change in hardness produced by the change in structure in metals exhibiting allotropic forms. The evidence for changes in mechanical properties during allotropic transformations is rather meager. In 1909, Rosenhain and Humfrey' observed that "ß" iron showed much less deformation at the transformation temperature than a iron. By means of a torsion test, Lee found that iron bars were "critically plastic" at the a-7 transformation temperature. Sauerwald and Knehans have shown that the dynamic hardness of iron increases between 900" and 1000°C. In 1930, Albert Sauveur' presented data on the hardness, tensile strength, and torsional strength of pui-e iron up to 1000°C. He concluded, "At 900°C, the a iron transforms into y iron, and this is accompanied by increased strength and stiffness and decreased ductility." The same year, Schischokin" obtained data on the hardness of thallium at temperatures above and below its transformation temperature. His data are replotted on semilogarithmic coordinates as Fig. 1. The fact that his data fall on straight lines in this type of plot is believed to attest to the purity of his metal and the accuracy of his results. In 1941, Nadai and Manjoine" obtained tensile data on pure iron with an indicated increase in strength at about 900°C. These experiments make it quite evident that changes in mechanical properties occur when a metal transforms from one crystal structure to another; but, except for Schischokin's data on thallium, none of the measurements seem accurate enough to determine the relative magnitude of the mechanical property change. Materials The metals that have been examined for changes in hardness during transformation include l—as- deposited commercial electrolytic cobalt about 99.7 pct pure, 2—Armco ingot iron, 3—are-melted iodide titanium of a purity in excess of 99.8 pct, 4—uranium of a purity in excess of 99.5 pct, 5—are-melted iodide zirconium of a purity in excess of 99.8 pct, 6—annealed, 0.08 pct C, rimmed steel, and 7—commercially pure RC55 titanium. While the purity of the first five of these materials leaves something to be desired, it will be noted that the observed hardness discontinuities occurred at the accepted transformation temperatures. (These temperatures are indicated by vertical arrows in Figs. 1 and 3 through 7.) The last two materials are commercial alloys introduced to show the effect of minor alloying elements upon the hot hardness curve. Apparatus Hardnesses at elevated temperatures were determined by means of a vacuum hot hardness machine. A diagram showing the basic features of this machine appears as Fig. 2. This machine is essentially a deadweight hardness .machine in a furnace within a vacuum chamber. The sapphire-tipped indentor

Jan 1, 1956

By P. G. Beckett

THE problem of handling the large quantities of water encountered in the Old Dominion mine presents many features of interest. In the present paper are discussed the probable sources of water, the pumping equipment, the increased flow into the mine in the early part of 1915, culminating in the flooding of the 18th and 16th levels in March of that year, and the difficulties that were met with during the high-water period. I. PRELIMINARY The Old Dominion mine, situated 1 mile north of the town of Globe, Ariz., has long been one of the prominent copper producers of the State, and until the opening up of the copper schist deposits in the neighboring mines of Miami, was responsible for the greater part of the copper output from the Globe district. As the gradual exhaustion of its orebodies near the surface led to the downward development of the mine, more water was encountered in the western portions directly underlying the dacite formation until the drainage problem became a serious factor in the operation of the mine and in the economical extraction of the ore. A heavy inrush of water on the 10th level of the mine in 1906, preceded by still earlier water difficulties, rendered imperative the immediate installation of a pumping equipment capable of handling large flows of water. While the Old Dominion has been recognized as a wet mine since its early clays and one in which the complete control of the water situation was of paramount importance in the development of the lower levels, it is chiefly in the last nine years, since the installation of the increased pumping equipment, that the mine has developed and handled large quantities of water.

Jan 4, 1916

In a country richly endowed in mineral wealth, Climax Arintco Mining Corporation's ICAMC) Dinkidi porphyry Au-Cu deposit in Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines, represents the most significant mineral discovery in this country in recent times. The deposit is located within a belt of young intrusive and volcanic rocks in the Sierra Madre mountain chain of north Luzon, a region previously unassociated with porphyry -style mineralisation.Since 1989, drilling of the Dinkidi deposit has outlined a resource of 124 million tonnes of 1.0 g/t gold and 0.4 per cent copper. Regional exploration throughout CAMC's 37 000 hectare FTAA has identified a further 16 potential porphyry-related deposits.

Jan 1, 1997

Recovery of tin and copper from concen trates containing cassiterite, stannite and chalcopyrite was studied in laboratory-scale tests designed to simulate continuous operation of the matte fuming process in which tin is recovered as SnS fume while copper accumulates in the matte. Charges made up of 300g of mixtures of the concentrate and siliceous flux were added at a uniform rate in pelletized form to crucibles containing 300g of matte and 50g of slag (both of which were recovered from previous tests), while blowing through the matte with air or oxygen-nitrogen mixtures at a rate of 3 to 5 1/min. Accurate material balances enabled the effects of process operating conditions on tin recovery and sulfur utilization to be deter- mined. When operated correctly, the matte fuming process gave tin recoveries exceeding 90 percent in spite of wide variations in the copper content of the matte and in the operat- ing conditions. Deterioration of tin recovery was associated with undersaturation of the slag with respect to silica, and with high partial pressure of sulfur dioxide (greater than approx- imately 0.2) brought about by oxygen enrichment of the blowing air. The utilization of sulfur varied widely in low grade mattes. Copper in excess of approx- imately 10% promoted formation of SO2 by the commonly accepted reaction: FeS + 1-120 2= FeO + S02 while in copper-free and lower grade mattes a substantial fraction of the oxygen was consumed in the alternative reaction FeS + i 02 = FeO + z S2.

Jan 1, 1980

By Gooday PE, Brech GE

Ore reserve categories used by Pancontinental Mining fall into one of three fundamental groupings: Geological In Situ Reserves Mining Reserves Production Estimates The first of these describes the total reserve within stated parameters without implication as to its mineability. The second is that part of the Geological In Situ Reserve which is considered mineable under a specific mining plan. The third is the Mining Reserve adjusted with appropriate dilution and recovery factors and thus represents the best estimate of the tonnage and grade of production. This practical three category system mirrors the standard steps traditionally taken in ore reserve estimation and readily conveys the basis of the estimates. An important, but secondary classification can be added to qualify the level of confidence in these estimates using the terms: Proved (or Measured) Probable (or Indicated) Possible (or Inferred) These terms can be applied to any of the fundamental groupings, but it is generally implicit that the level of detail required to produce meaningful Mining Reserves or Production Estimates would require the basic Geological Reserve to be at a Proved or at least Probable level of confidence. The application of these classification systems by Pancontinental is illustrated by reference to the Paddington Gold Project. The methods of calculation are described including the use of geostatistics. Reconciliations of actual production with predictions from reserves are carried out monthly and annually. To date there has been an excellent correlation with Production Estimates, based on both manual and geostatistical calculations.

Jan 1, 1987

By Menne D. M, Ladyman R

Camel Creek Mine operated by Lynch Mining Pty Ltd is located 65 km west of inghain and 160 kin north west of Townsville in North Queensland. (Figure 1). The Camel Creek gold mineralisation was discovered in mid-1987 in an area previously known for its tin workings. Mining commenced in January 1989 after an oxide reserve of 1.2 million tonnes @ 2.1 g/t gold had been delineated. The first gold pour was in May 1989. The mine developed into a medium sized open cut operation, with full site facilities. The initial mining rate was 500 000 tpa utilising run-of-mine (ROM) heap leaching to recover the gold. By the end of 1990 the wider orehodies were mined and efforts were focused on the narrow orebodies, of width typically less than three metres. Smaller earth moving equipment was employed to selectively mine the narrow orehodies leading to a decrease in the mining rate to 200 000 tpa. The Red Gold deposit (80 000 tonnes « 3.0 g/t to 18 in vertical) was mined in mid-1990 and ore was hauled approximately 8 kin to the Camel Creek heap leach operation. The ore was hauled in a dedicated campaign after being stockpiled. The cost of dedicated ore haulage ensured that only the more exceptional of the remote orebodies could be mined in this manner. The Golden Cup orebody, some 20 km from Camel Creek, was too distant to permit ore haulage. However, this prospect contained sufficient gold (initially 90 000 tonnes @ 3.0 g/t) to warrant the installation of a small mobile adsorption facility. Construction of the second heap leach operation commenced in late-1990. Gold production commenced in early April 1991. Mining of several smaller orebodies remote to the second heap leach facility has been undertaken and further mining is planned. This paper outlines heap leaching practice at Camel Creek Mine and summarises the success of the Golden Cup heap leach.

Jan 1, 1994

By A. Iizuka

This study was aimed at separating and recovering arsenic, antimony, and tin from refining byproducts generated in a nonferrous smelter. The target byproduct was a silicate slag containing the above elements. The silicate structure of the slag was destroyed by alkali roasting, which then enabled leaching of arsenic, antimony and tin in solution effectively. Arsenic was selectively leached out by hot water after alkali roasting of the slag, while remained antimony and tin in the residue were leached out by a hot hydrochloric acid solution. However, when the solid-liquid ratio in the leaching solution was increased, hydrous gelatinous silica (gel-like silica) was formed during the hydrochloric acid treatment and filtration became difficult. Therefore, high temperature and high pressure leaching was attempted to improve the filterability of the silica leaching residue. In the high temperature and high pressure treatment, the hydrous gel-like silica was transformed into easily filterable aggregated silica, and thus, filtration became easy. By investigating the neutralization and sulfurization treatment for the obtained hydrochloric acid leachate (second leachate), it was possible to separate antimony and tin. INTRODUCTION This study aims to separate arsenic and recover valuable metals such as antimony and tin from refining byproducts generated in a nonferrous smelter. The target smelting byproduct is antimony-containing slag in this study. In many cases, alkali roasting was adopted as pretreatment for extraction and recovering valuable metals from smelting residues and wastes (Rao, 2006). For antimony-containing slag in this study, one effective method for separating arsenic is to convert arsenic to sodium arsenate (Na3AsO4) by roasting with a sodium compound and then to remove arsenic by hot water leaching. In addition, by alkali roasting, the silicate structure of the slag is destroyed, and effectively alkalizing tin and antimony is accomplished. Then, precipitating and recovering tin and antimony leached into the acid solution are considered possible by sulfurization and neutralization treatments. In this research, we conducted basic studies on the following. 1) Destruction of silicate structure in slag by alkali roasting and leachability of arsenic. 2) Conversion of hydrous gelatinous silica to aggregated silica by hydrochloric acid treatment of residues after arsenic leaching under high temperature and high pressure, as well as leachability of antimony and tin. 3) Separation and recovery of antimony and tin by sulfurization and neutralization treatments of hydrochloric acid leachate. These topics of investigation can support to consider the separation and recovery process of arsenic, antimony, and tin from antimony containing slag.

Jan 1, 2019

By J. T. McGrath, G. B. Craig

Tensile tests on aluminum single crystals, grown from the melt, revealed that the yield stress of these crystals was raised as the amount of striation substructure was increased. The number of striation-type boundaries was varied by changing the rate of growth of the crystals. The results are interpreted in terns of a blockage of dislocation movement by striation boundaries. IMPERFECTIONS are known to have a large effect on the mechanical properties of metals. Teghtsoonian and Chalmers 1 studied a block or striation-type substructure in tin and found that the formation of the striations depended upon rate of crystal growth and orientation. They found that the angular misorienta-tion between neighboring striations varied between 15 min and 5 deg. Atwater and chalmers2 investigated striations in tin and lead, and found that purity was another factor which influenced their formation. There was a limiting purity above which the striations were straight and regular. There is little information in the literature concerning how substructures in melt-grown crystals affect strength. washburn3 introduced small-angle boundaries into zinc by a shear process and found a subsequent increase in yield stress which he attributed to the presence of these boundaries. Lauriente and pond4 found the critical resolved shear stress in aluminium crystals grown from the melt, to increase with etch pit density. The etch pits were used as an indication of growth imperfections. In Hibbard's5 work on lineage structure in copper crystals grown from the melt, he tested one crystal containing interlineage boundaries, and found a 50 pct increase in the critical resolved shear stress. Fleischer and Chalmers6, in a recent paper, mention briefly that, in the production of aluminium crystals from the melt when the growth rate was raised from 1.2 to 18 cm per hr, the yield stress increased 50 pct. They felt that the increase in yield stress with rate of growth might be attributed to a higher concentration of impurities in the gage length and also might be affected by the increased number of small-angle boundaries (striations). The present investigation was undertaken to determine the effect of the striation substructure on the strength of aluminum single crystals. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Aluminum single crystals of 99.9992 purity were grown from the melt using a technique described by Chalmers.7 The growth rate was varied from 0.6 to 20 mm per min, thus producing crystals with varying numbers of striation boundaries. To avoid prior deformation, the crystals were chemically cut to the desired length with a saturated solution of cupric chloride. They were then annealed at 580°C for 24 hr and allowed to cool slowly in the furnace. Finally, the specimens were electropolished using an electrolyte of 5 parts ethyl alcohol and 1 part perchloric acid. Each specimen was approximately 5 in. in length and 0.125 sq in. in cross section. The average orientations of the 5 series of crystals studied are shown on the stereographic projection of Fig. 1. The crystals were strained approximately 2 pct in a soft tensile machine. The strain sensitivity was 3.6 x 10-4 cm over a 5-cm gage length.

Jan 1, 1960

Both as an energy source and as a raw material, natural gas is playing an increasingly important role as a catalyst for the development, continuation and rebirth of mining projects in Australia. Pipelines are the vital link in making natural gas available to a region and to individual mines. This paper will cover the role of pipelines in supplying mining projects in Australia, the development and status of the Ballera to Mount Isa gas pipeline and the future prospects for gas pipelines in the Carpentaria Mineral Province.

Jan 1, 1998

By Boyd G

This paper describes the planning, analysis, design and operational experience of highwall mining based on auger drilling techniques applied to thick coal seams exposed in an opencut highwall. Being the first time such technology has been used in Australia, a large commitment to technical design and logistics planning was given by Callide Coalfields Pty Ltd. This commitment included technical and operations management and supervision, mine services, and the retention of consultants to undertake geotechnical analysis, instrument preparation and instrument installation.

Jan 1, 1991

By Stokes WPC

The capital requirements to develop a new mining venture are becoming very large; amounts of the order of US$1,000 million are not now unusual among estimates to bring new mining complexes into production. At the same time prevailing political and economic conditions are making it increasingly difficult to determine whether or not a project is likely to be viable. These factors emphasise the need to carry out thorough evaluation studies of all mineral prospects before making major investment. Additionally with the rapidly changing economic climate existing at the present time, it is becoming more and more necessary to carry out reappraisals of existing mines. An important function of both initial evaluations and reappraisals is to provide the operators of the mine with effective mining plans to ensure that the operation will meet its required economic targets. P, p M. tl p b, c v, s c 1 n 1 f r d c e c e u w Modern computers are well equipped to store and manipulate large amounts of data with speed and reliability. Their use in the mining field r is increasing and this trend serves to free f technical staff from much of the time consuming m and error prone hand calculations which were o formerly required in determining reserves and w carrying out all forms of mine planning. r Nevertheless, computers are not a universal

Jan 1, 1980

By C. Campero, C. Nicolau, L. Pagliero

The Chilean Congress has recently promoted desalination as a solution to meet the mining industry’s growing water demand. However, this rapid expansion of desalination infrastructure comes with trade-offs. This includes a significant energy cost for treatment, as well as socio-environmental impacts on indigenous communities, tourism, fisheries, and the marine ecosystem. This paper advances a regional-scale model for analyzing competing trade-offs through a case study in the Antofagasta mining region of Chile. Through geospatial data analysis in ArcGIS, new desalination infrastructure investments supplying water to mines are overlain with features of concern raised by communities during the environmental impact assessment (EIA) process, such as national parks, fisheries and exploitation areas for benthonic resources. The resultant model provides a test-bed for analyzing the cumulative effects associated with desalination expansion and for investigating scenarios to mitigate negative social-environmental impacts. The model simulates alternative scenarios for desalination locations and pipeline routes according to competing constraints (i.e. to minimize cost and energy constraints while also avoiding ecological and social hotspots). The ultimate contribution of the work is a demonstration of how the proactive adoption of a regional-scale infrastructure planning might have led to different desalination investment decisions. INTRODUCTION Chile represents the largest producer of copper globally, and holds approximately a third of the world’s estimated copper reserves. However, access to water represents a major constraint to industry expansion and creates conflicts with competing water users (Aitken et al., 2016; Côte et al., 2010). Recently, the Chilean Congress has promoted desalination as a solution to meeting the industry’s growing water demand, which is likely to lead to significant growth in desalination infrastructure to support large-scale mining projects that extract freshwater over a rate of 150 l/s1. By most recent projections, the Chilean copper mining sector is set to increase seawater use by 230% by 2029 (Faversham House Group Ltd, 2019). By the year 2015, Chile had 11 projects serving the mining industry and there are at least other 12 planned plants (Cochilco, 2015). While the use of seawater allows continued expansion of the sector without depletion of scarce underground aquifers, it is nonetheless accompanied with important socio-environmental drawbacks. One such challenge with desalination is the associated energy costs, expressed, both economic and environmental (e.g., CO2 emissions). This includes the energy required for reverse osmosis treatment facilities, as well as to pump water to inland regions at high elevations around 3.100 m.a.s.l in Chile. (Dixon, 2013; Knops et al., 2013). Additionally, the impacts of desalinated water use on flotation chemistry are generally poorly understood, necessitating the need for further research into the impacts, both positive and negative (Cisternas and Gálvez, 2018; Liu et al., 2011).

Jan 1, 2019

By J. D. Hunt, R. J. McDonald

It is proposed that extensive fluid motion occurs between the dendrites of a Partially solid casting and it is suggested the A segregates in steel castings are a direct result of this motion. The fluid flow arises because of density differences between liquid ahead of the dendrites and the interdendritic liquid. Experiments are described on a model system investigating this fluid motion. The importance of interdendritic fluid flow is discussed with reference to longitudinal segregation. SERIOUS macro segregation is often found in large killed steel ingots. Among the most common segregates are those known as A and V, Fig. 1. The A segregates are arranged over the surface of cones, the wide parts being at the base of the ingot. The A segregates are pencil like in shape and extend from the columnar into the equiaxed region. The V segregates are distributed over inverted cones but have a less well defined shape. They occur at the center of the ingot. Because of the commercial importance of macro inhomogenities these segregates have attracted wide-scale attention. The segregates contain alloying elements and impurities which depress the freezing temperature and are thus the last liquid to freeze. A number of explanations have been proposed to explain their presence. It has been suggested1'' that the segregates are the result of the equiaxed zone growing towards the columnar region together with the interaction of convection within the bulk liquid. It has also been proposed that the segregates are the result of nucleation and rapid growth ahead of the dendritic front.3 Neither of these explanations is completely satisfactory because A segregates are pencil shaped and are not found as continuous cones. In this paper an alternative mechanism is proposed, and experiments are described on a model system to determine whether the mechanism occurs in practice. It is thought that A and V segregates are not peculiar to steels but should occur in many other large castings. Fluid motion within the bulk liquid region of a casting has been extensively discussed. Little attention has been paid to fluid motion within the partially solid regions. The work415 that has been done has been mainly concerned with the fluid motion which results from the volume contraction on freezing. The volume contraction is used to explain various types of macro segregation. The present authors suggest that in many cases the fluid flow resulting from volume contraction will be small compared with that due to other causes. When the columnar region is growing, the liquid still remaining between the dendrites has a much lower temperature near the ingot walls than at the dendrite tips. The composition of the liquid in contact with solid will vary with temperature. The density of the liquid will thus vary both because of changes in temperature and composition. The layers of different density liquid will give rise to a slow but steady liquid flow through the interdendritic regions. If there is no density change with composition, the temperature gradient within the dendritic region should give rise to a downward flow between the dendrites, shown schematically in Fig. 2. When the liquid density changes appreciably with alloy concentration this motion could either be en-

Jan 1, 1970

By Case JE

Complete Bouguer and isostatic anomaly maps compiled for Costa Rica provide new insights into the crustal structure and mineralization. Terrain corrections were approximated from the station to a radial distance of 167 km by computer using a 3- minute digital elevation model of Costa Rica and surrounding areas. Isostatic corrections, based on Airy-Heiskanen compensation, were also calculated from 0 to 167 km using the 3- minute elevation model and from 167 km to 180 degrees using combined topographic and isostatic reduction maps. Costa Rica can be divided into four main terranes based on gravity data: a Pacific coastal region, a Pacific inland area, a central region, and a Caribbean coastal region. Negative gravity anomalies along the Pacific coastal margin correlate with an offshore sedimentary basin, and large positive anomalies correlate with mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks on the Santa Elena, Nicoya, and Osa Peninsulas, and at Puerto Quepos. Pacific inland anomalies are separated from the Pacific coastal region by a steep gravity gradient, and over the Coast Ranges a major gravity low overlies a thick section of low- density sedimentary rocks. In the central region, a major gravity low occurs over a thick low-density Quaternary volcanic complex in the Cordillera Central, north of San Jose. A prominent feature of the Caribbean coastal region is an interrupted gravity low over the Limon Basin that reflects a thickening of low-density sedimentary rocks. A conspicuous gravity lineament, trending northeast separates northern and southern Costa Rica. The lineament is defined by the termination of several major gravity anomalies including those over the Coast Ranges, Cordillera Central, Puerto Quepos, and Limon Basin. In addition, the lineament correlates with other geological and geophysical data including: northeast-trending faults, the southern limit of large Quaternary volcanoes, the segmentation of the middle America volcanic belt, and a seismicity gap. This lineament may be the expression of a previously unrecognized major northeast- trending fracture zone in central Costa Rica. An important economic implication of the gravity lineament is a correlation with the termination of gold and porphyry copper deposits in Costa Rica.

Jan 1, 1987

The Barrick North Mara Mine and the Advanced Systems Group at SGS Minerals collaborated on the implementation of a grinding expert system for the control and optimisation of a single semi autogenous (SAG) mill. Over the last 5 years, grinding expert control has gained wide acceptance by mineral processors. In this paper, two key factors for success are highlighted: the adaptability of the software tools and the interaction with site personnel. Created with SGS?s MET expert console (MEC) toolkit, and running on Gensym?s G2 real time inference software, the North Mara expert logic has been set up to keep a steady and on spec leaching feed slurry while striving to maximize throughput. Leach feed stability was achieved by standardizing operating practices across shifts; a result of successful collaboration with site personnel in developing a consistent control strategy. The strategy maintains the SAG load and power draw in an optimised range by manipulating SAG feed rates and inlet water flow. The project life-cycle was slightly longer than average due to site specific constraints. One of these was the high turnover rate of site?s workforce during the project, coupled with the availability of key staff on site due to the fly in fly out work roster. These constraints called for different, and innovative ways of project commissioning and hand-over. This paper describes details of the control solution, its implementation as well as results and conclusions.

Jan 1, 2009