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By D. E. Munson

The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) Project was established in 1975 by the Department of Energy (DOE) under Public Law 193 to develop the necessary technology for safe disposal of radioactive wastes from the defense programs of the U.S. The technology development involves extensive theoretical, numerical, and laboratory programs, as well as construction of the WIPP facility in southeastern New Mexico for in situ testing and waste storage demonstration. If after the demonstration, the facility is found to comply with regulations of the Environmental Protection Agency, then the facility will become a repository for Transuranic (TRU) waste. The underground portion of the facility is 655 m beneath the ground surface in massive natural salt deposits of the Salado formation, as shown in Figure 1.

Jan 1, 1991

By Edwin B. Johnson

The success of self-fluxed sinter in enhancing the operation of the blast furnace during the past few years has reasonably led to the assumption that the use of self-fluxed pellets might result in even greater furnace efficiencies. A great share of development work in agglomeration has been directed towards techniques related to the production of self-fluxed pellets, but no appreciable tonnage of self-fluxed pellets had been produced on a commercial scale until this past year when The Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co. produced 35,000 tons of such pellets by the grate kiln system at the Republic mine during the period May 21-June 5, 1962.

Jan 3, 1963

By J. F. Allan

The main conditions which affect investment in mineral exploration and development are compared in five countries currently considered attractive for mineral investment - Canada, the U.S., Australia, Brazil and the Philippines. The primary parameters - the probability of occurrence and discovery of mineral deposits and the short and long term viability of mineral development - are evaluated and compared on a relative basis by a form of factor analysis. This analysis indicates that of the five countries studied, Canada is second only to the United States in degree of favourability for mineral exploration and development.

Jan 1, 1976

By F. Heivilin

If the past is the key to the future, we will have ?tough? times maintaining Industrial Mineral reserves we have and proving new reserves around our plants and in new locations. The tough times will come from resources being more difficult to find, more hoops to go thru to make them Proven or Probable reserves. As always, Industrial Minerals require competitive quality, location, and costs. Since in most cases the market has suppliers, you will have to take away customers from their present supplier. This may take years or not happen even with lower cost higher quality raw materials. To determine the finished cost for a new deposit you need to design, determine capital costs, and operating costs for a new plant . Stripping, mining, hauling, processing, and transportation costs are part of the equation. After satisfying that your costs are in line you will need to do production tests to make sure the process works on the ore. You may want to complete permitting before purchasing the property. If you are new in the business you will have to prove you can deliver the right quality, the right quantity, on time consistently year after year at lower cost to take away a customer. Without being in the market this will be hard. The cut off grades to enter a market may be much lower than sale indicates because a competitor often lowers the price to keep you out of the market. We have many more items to check before the new deposits can be put on reserves. Our old reserves will require drilling to check for new products and prove that they do not contain items that would make them unusable for our product line or cause permitting problems. Archeological checks, wetlands, more water discharge testing, county zoning, and endangered species are among many items that have been added to mine permits. There will be more. A 4-6 page mining permit becomes 30-300 pages and consists of 5-15 permits, any of which might be a fatal stumbling block. It is not guaranteed that we can mine what we have on reserves. We may fight and lose. Oil-Dri?s loss in Reno and LaPort?s in England are examples where permitting failed. The NOx, sulfur, and carbon problems are just starting. Dioxin is in the background requiring monitoring on food products to Europe. What other anions, cations, endangered species, and land types are going to be problems in the future are guesses now. What new products are we going to have to test for and cause out of balance reserves? If there are none we probably won?t be here. We are competing for land use with ?Endangered Species?, wetlands, farming, forestry, cities, roads, and hunting. We?ve mined the best quality, low overburden, easiest to mine and process raw materials. The price of land and taxes are increasing. Old royalties are 2-3 times the present acre value instead of 8-10 times the property value when leased. Land taxes are up. It was and is best that we get the land in Fee Simple Title. This isn?t always possible. However, plants are closing and people have overlooked, made mistakes in drilling or interpretation of deposits. These may be opportunities. China is eating up high quality ?Industrial Minerals ?which have caused prices to rise. We may need to change our cutoffs? in terms of smaller pit sizes and higher overburden ratios. This is money in the bank. Overburden ratios and other items increasing cutoff costs need to be rethought. Suddenly doubling cutoff ratios for overburden and decreasing pit sizes are good alternatives to looking elsewhere where we might not be able to mine for a number of reasons. The higher prices make them competitive, especially when a competitor goes out of business. However, our low overburden ratios and short hauls around our plants are not safe from new roads, condemnation by county or city governments (N. J.), zoning changes (Reno, FL., CA, and environmental regulation changes (Buffers GA, MS). New roads ?Interstates? can take reserves, increase hauling distances and reduce tons per load. Let?s combine the Refractories, fullers earth, and bentonite industries and use the last 40 years as a guide to the future looking for problems and opportunities. Some or most of the following will apply to other minerals. WHERE DO WE LOOK? First, on our own properties, those next to our properties and on properties near our competitor?s plants. Where the profit margin has increased, the distance from the plant and thickness of overburden we can use is increased. The thickness of clay is decreased. For new locations we pick the ideal location and look at deposits and closed or open operations in ever increasing distances away from that location. We need to be aware of: 1. Increased transportation costs a. Access to Roads -Backhauls b. Haul with doubles and triples c. Railroads - Loading on sidings - Ability to get switches - Cars/backhauls versus rates 2. Cost of building a new plant 3. Cost of infrastructure 4. Cost of repair or new equipment when purchasing an operating or shutdown plant. 5. Local, state, and federal mine and environmental permitting. When exploring around an established operation expect that property acquisition, drilling, mining, stripping, and hauling costs will be greater due to them having second, third, or even fourth the pick of the deposits. I found this in New Jersey looking for refractories and around Quincy, Florida looking for attapulgite. You may be able to get some better properties because the operating company has angered some land owners, their drillers missed the clay, or the property wasn?t available when they were actively exploring for reserves. You may have some product lines your

Jan 1, 2009

By R. J. Matetic, David S. Yantek, David K. Ingram

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has investigated engineering noise controls to reduce sound levels in cabs on air-rotary drill rigs. A recent investigation revealed that some drillers are exposed to A-weighted sound levels exceeding 85 dB even though a cab is used. NIOSH studied the in-cab sound levels of one such rig. First, preliminary tests were conducted in a controlled environment using accelerometers and microphones with spectral analysis to identify the dominant noise sources for in-cab sound levels. The results indicate that vibration transmitted from multiple hydraulic pumps to the control panel produces a dominant spike in the sound level spectrum in the 400 Hz 1/3-octave band. Next, field tests were performed in a production environment to evaluate noise controls to reduce in-cab sound levels. It was found that utilizing hydraulic noise suppressors reduces the structure-borne noise transmitted to the control panel. Further, using hydraulic noise suppressors and enhancing soundproofing reduced the in-cab A-weighted sound levels by as much as 4 dB.

By R. A. Franks, G. F. Friel, J. C. Edwards, A. C. Smith

An evaluation of a nuisance-emissions-discriminating smart mine fire sensor system was made in an operating coal mine. These field evaluations were conducted to determine the sensor system's ability to discern nuisance emissions, such as diesel exhaust, emissions from flame cutting and welding operations or hydrogen gas from a charging station, from real fires and to compare the number of falsely reported fire alarms generated between the sensor system and a standard carbon monoxide (CO) monitor. The sensor system's ability to operate successfully in the working environment of an operating coal mine was also evaluated. The smart mine fire sensor system consisted of four sensors whose data outputs were fused with the use of a neural-network-type computer program. Long-term trials were conducted in a haulage way, a belt entry, and a track entry. The system functioned successfully in the belt entry, in accordance with its developmental goals, where the sensor system even discriminated events not anticipated during development. It was not totally effective in the haulage way and track entry, though, due to a combination of significant diurnal air temperature variations, dust, and mechanically induced vibrations. Also, deteriorating rib conditions contributed to operational problems in the haulage way evaluation. In general, the smart mine fire sensor provided nuisance emissions discrimination and was shown to be a viable new approach for mine atmospheric monitoring, enhancing miner safety. This paper describes the in-mine evaluation of the smart mine fire sensor system and discusses recommendations for improving the system.

By R. A. Franks

An evaluation of a nuisance-emissions-discriminating smart mine fire sensor system was made in an operating coal mine. These field evaluations were conducted to determine the sensor system?s ability to discern nuisance emissions, such as diesel exhaust, emissions from flame cutting and welding operations or hydrogen gas from a charging station, from real fires and to compare the number of falsely reported fire alarms generated between the sensor system and a standard carbon monoxide (CO) monitor. The sensor system?s ability to operate successfully in the working environment of an operating coal mine was also evaluated. The smart mine fire sensor system consisted of four sensors whose data outputs were fused with the use of a neural-network-type computer program. Long-term trials were conducted in a haulage way, a belt entry, and a track entry. The system functioned successfully in the belt entry, in accordance with its developmental goals, where the sensor system even discriminated events not anticipated during development. It was not totally effective in the haulage way and track entry, though, due to a combination of significant diurnal air temperature variations, dust, and mechanically induced vibrations. Also, deteriorating rib conditions contributed to operational problems in the haulage way evaluation. In general, the smart mine fire sensor provided nuisance emissions discrimination and was shown to be a viable new approach for mine atmospheric monitoring, enhancing miner safety. This paper describes the in-mine evaluation of the smart mine fire sensor system and discusses recommendations for improving the system. Disclaimer: The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

Jan 1, 2008

By L. L. Chasko

A mine fire is one of the most challenging safety issues facing a mine operator and can occur at any location underground. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Twentymile Coal Mine, Colorado, conducted in-mine experiments to determine the capability of high-expansion foam for addressing underground fires. The tests were conducted in sloping entries with high-capacity diesel-powered foam generators. The following results were observed: a well-designed, maintained, and properly operated high-expansion foam generator can propagate a foam plug hundreds of feet in steep upward sloping (20 pct) multiple entries against a ventilation pressure; stoppings and partitions designed to contain the foam plug in upward sloping entries must be substantially constructed; and the predicted quantity of foam concentrate can be significantly less than the actual amount used due to foam losses, such as bubble breakage on dry surfaces. This paper describes the production of high-expansion firefighting foam and discusses the in-mine experimental tests and results. DISCLAIMER: The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

Jan 1, 2009

By R. S. Conti, M. R. Krump, C. P. Lazzara Ph. D., R. L. Derick, L. L. Chasko

A mine fire is one of the most challenging safety issues facing a mine operator and can occur at any location underground. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Twentymile Coal Mine, CO, conducted in-mine experiments to determine the capability of high-expansion foam for addressing underground fires. The tests were conducted in sloping entries with high-capacity diesel-powered foam generators. The following results were observed: a well-designed, maintained and properly operated high-expansion foam generator can propagate a foam plug hundreds of feet in steep upward-sloping (20%) multiple entries against a ventilation pressure; stoppings and partitions designed to contain the foam plug in upward-sloping entries must be substantially constructed; and the predicted quantity of foam concentrate can be significantly less than the actual amount used, due to foam losses, such as bubble breakage on dry surfaces. This paper describes the production of high-expansion firefighting foam and discusses the in-mine experimental tests and results.

Jan 1, 2010

If the industry keeps doing what it has always done, it will continue to get what it has always got - rising operating costs. Why is this so? Generally grades being chased are becoming lower, stripping ratios becoming higher, ability to attract personnel to the industry becoming harder and/or more expensive, higher safety standards are being demanded and environmental governance is being enforced.   How then should the surface mining industry plan for the future whilst delivering on improved safety and the environment? In-pit crushing and conveying (IPCC) points the way, as a partial or complete substitute for trucks.   IPCC systems promise significant advantages over traditional truck and shovel operations, including improved safety, reduced operating costs, reduced dust and noise emissions, far greater efficiency in energy use (electric versus diesel motors predominantly and the ability to regenerate electricity back into the local grid for downhill situations), reduced carbon emissions (dependent on power generation source) and reduced water consumption. Despite these advantages, there is a general industry reluctance to migrate from truck and shovel operations. This reluctance stems from a familiarity with truck and shovel operations and a perceived concern that IPCC lacks flexibility which will negatively impact on the mining operation.   In studies conducted since 2007 (with the new modular builds) comparing IPCC with truck-optimised pit designs, IPCC has delivered up to USD$0.82 per tonne moved less than an equivalent truck operation. In addition, IPCC is easily automated from a central control room (local or remote) - something that trucks have yet to commercially achieve.   IPCC is a proven process that, with a fresh mindset, can make a significant improvement to mining operations - its safety, the impact on the environment and its costs. It maybe of interest to note that there is over 200 IPCC installations worldwide today.   This paper and presentation will assist in furthering the understanding of IPCC and its applicability.

Jun 1, 2010

By Mohamed Ourriban, Stéphanie Somot, Éric Proulx, Jean-Sébastien Marois, Marjolaine Drouin, Paul Blatter, Ahmed Bouajila, Claude Gagnon

"The mining industry has to face increasing restrictions concerning the use of fresh water in Québec and throughout the world. Increasing recirculated water usage could lead to a better control of the quality and the quantity of water supplied to the mineral processing units. Furthermore, it could reduce the volume of waste water to be managed and treated before its release to the environment. However, process water may have a negative impact on mineral processing operations, thereby limiting the incentive for sustainable development initiatives. As a first step into selecting and testing remediation strategies, one of which being blending local waters, a mapping of process water quality (inorganic and organic fractions) allowed to locate zones in an industrial case study where fresh water is introduced into the circuit and to detect dissolution and precipitation zones. A complementary hydro-geochemical modeling study on water blends was also performed showing encouraging results towards the objectives of the project.INTRODUCTION The industry has to face increasing restrictions on the use of fresh water in Québec (Quebec Government, 2009) and throughout the world (Brown, 2003; UNESCO, 2006). The cost for the use of fresh water and for water management is highly variable and case-dependent (from 0.2 to up to 7 million dollars/year according to available private estimations, excluding the capital expenditure). It may be, or may become, significant for any plant; thus, risk assessment is of concern here. Using recirculated water could lead to a better control of the quality and the quantity of water supplied to the mineral processing units. Furthermore, it could reduce the volume of waste water to be managed and treated before its release to the environment. However, process water may have some positive and negative impacts on mineral processing operations (Janssen, 2003; Johnson, 2003; Rao and Finch, 1989). Negative impacts could limit the incentive for sustainable development initiatives. Water management strategies at mineral processing sites are supported both by a strategic plan and a water management plan. The strategic plan includes legal aspects, investment costs, potential benefits and various risk levels (Corder and Moran, 2006; Côte et al, 2006; Evans et al., 2006; MacIntosh and Merritt, 2003; McLellan et al., 2008; Merritt and MacIntosh, 2006; Robinson and Keddie, 2006; van Beers et al., 2007a; van Beers et al., 2007b; van Berkel, 2007). In practice, the strategic plan evaluates technical possibilities and costs of various scenarios, such as for example: bringing fresh water to the plant or recirculating waters, or using blends of both. Two important factors to consider in order to enhance the future production efficiency and to minimise risks are: the durability and the stability of the resource, both from quality and quantity points of view."

Jan 1, 2012

Continuing with the effort of providing new and more effective exploration methods to the mining industry, where direct methods (drilling, cross-cutting, etc.) are not applicable, either for logistical or environmental reasons or because they are costly and sometimes ineffective, we present here a new seismic technique based on full wave recording of 3-D channel waves generated within the coal seam across a longwall. In the past two years we reported the application on In-Seam High Resolution Seismic Reflection (ISHRSR) and In-Seam Seismic Tomography (ISST) to map non-coal inclusions that disrupt the coal seam continuity. In the present paper we present a 3-D In-Seam Seismic Tomography (3-DTSST) method using 3-D channel waves recorded by three component high resolution geophones. The method allows to distinguish longitudinal and transversal components of the channel waves, similar to the spheroidal and toroidal modes for the free oscillations of the earth. The recording of these waves allows a more complete analysis of the free modal vibrations of channel waves, permitting a more complete inversion of the structure of the coal seam through which they travel. The full wave analysis provides additional insights of the detailed coal structure for larger, distances than for the ones previously reported using the one dimensional method. The refinement of the inversion software is also a contribution towards the better definition of the coal seam geometry and structures disturbing them such as sandstone channels, sandstone rolls, partings, mine voids, faults, fractures, etc. The method is illustrated with three case studies where subsequent mining revealed the virtues and limitations. The first example deals with the problem of mapping mine works in one side of a longwall panel which geometry is well known, to verify its applicability to map old mine works. The second example deals with a sandstone body that partially scoured the coal seam withing a longwall panel. The third shows an application of the method to map roof conditions in a longwall panel where this problem critically affected production scheduling and costs

Jan 1, 1996

By Leung L, Downey M

This paper presents an overview of a technology package developed by BHP for locating discontinuities in coal seams using an in-seam seismic (ISS) exploration technique. The technology package includes instrumentation, data processing software, field procedures, numerical modelling and interpretation know-how. The technology developed has proved to be highly successful; features such as faults and dykes, not detected by other methods, have been delineated. Using equipment specifically designed for underground use, surveys are carried out quickly and at low cost. More than 30 ISS surveys have been conducted by BHP in Australia. Substantial savings in production revenue have been realised in situations where ISS has identified mining conditions which would have impeded longwall operations. Case studies of several ISS surveys are described in the Paper.

Jan 1, 1987

By L. J. Olivier

The possible closure and subsequent flooding of South Deep Gold Mine?s (SD) neighbouring Randfontein Estates Limited No. 4 Shaft (REL 4) necessitated the construction of five concrete plugs in the connecting tunnels to prevent the ingress of groundwater into REL4 from flooding SD. This paper describes the proposed controlled flooding of REL 4, the planned in-service monitoring of the five plugs and the water barrier between REL 4 and South Deep Mine, and the long-term maintenance of the plugs and rock mass in the immediate vicinity of the plugs.

Jan 1, 2006

By T. Mudder, R. Cellan, R. Waterland, J. Whitlock, B. N. Nelson

The effectiveness of anaerobic in-situ biological treatment for the immobilization of selenium, molybdenum, and uranium in an alluvial aquifer was examined using long-term column tests. A series of organic substrate and nutrient combinations were tested to determine removal effectiveness, optimum supplement concentrations and ratios. Final column testing was conducted to determine the chemical stability of the treatment by-products/treatment compounds by dosing the columns continuously with elevated redox untreated alluvial groundwater.

Jan 1, 2002

By Kot F. Unrug

Strength of coal is one of the governing factors in size determination of mine pillars, and therefore affects the percentage of extraction and thus, utilization of reserves. Coal strength is also important from the subsidence control standpoint, where mine pillars with appropriate safety factors should be designed for long term stability. Determination of coal seam strength has been addressed through the extrapolation of the coal strength obtained from a small number of samples on the whole section of the seam. This procedure often gives unreliable results. Presented in this paper is a method of in-situ strength testing of coal, allowing for a realistic determination of seam strength. Results of a field case study dealing with the coal seam, where samples for the laboratory strength tests could not be obtained due to the dense cleat, are presented. However, in these conditions, the in-situ testing was successful. A comparison of both conventional and the in-situ penetrometer method was carried out. It was found that the penetrometer data not only improve the accuracy of strength determination of the entire seam, but also prove to be much more cost effective than the conventional method on a per test basis.

Jan 1, 1995

By Sidney A. Suhler

The persistent requirement for methods and equipment capable of detecting hazardous anomalies in advance of underground mining has led to the development by the U.S. Bureau of Mines of a directional radar probe. The probe operates from boreholes drilled from the surface into the underground region to be mined. The engineering model radar was completed in early 1982 and field demonstration tests were performed in May of that year at a selected coal mine. Preliminary in-situ electromagnetic tests were performed at several candidate coal mines to evaluate the radio-frequency characteristics of the coal. A coal mine in New Mexico was selected on the basis of low EM propagation losses in the coal and the presence of an extensive coal seam displacing fault as a radar target. The borehole radar was operated in two vertical boreholes which intersected the coal seam at approximately 25 and 40 feet from the fault interface. Radar reflections from the coal/ rock interface were detected in both tests. Underground tests in a horizontal borehole in the coal were less successful because of interfering reflections. Additional borehole-to-borehole tests were performed with a separate ground penetrating electromagnetic system to obtain radar range calibration data. The coal was found to be bounded by very lossy roof and floor sandstone and shale while propagation through the coal seam was obtained at distances up to 175 feet between test boreholes. Coal seam continuity was indicated by the hole-to-hole experiments through a section of the seam previously thought to be completely cut off by the fault.

Jan 1, 1983

By P. J. Nicholson

The methods of reinforcement to be discussed in this paper are all insitu methods, ones that can be used on the soil structure as it exists in the ground, and do not rely on excavation and replacement of the soil. Current practice in the United States, as well as new ideas and methods, will be discussed as they relate to slope stability, retaining walls, and to other uses such as control of mine or cavity related subsidence and to liquefaction control under existing structures. The method is based on the concept of "nailing" or reinforcing the soil in place, and thereby causing a mass of soil to act as a coherent unit. When performed properly, a true gravity structure can be constructed, one that will remain intact under both horizontal and vertical loadings and that will also resist vibrational and seismic loadings.

Jan 1, 2010

By R. Patel, D. R. Taylor, P. M. Varley

In-situ measurements of ground stress were made from surface boreholes, using overcoring and hydrofracturing techniques, to obtain data for the detailed design of the underground works at Pergau. Unexpectedly low stresses were measured and appeared to correlate with apparent hydrofracturing observed during permeability testing. The low values of the minor principal stress had a major impact on design, particularly of the lining for the pressure tunnel and shaft. Additional hydrofracture tests were made underground during construction of the low- and high-pressure headrace tunnels and the pressure shaft, to define the vertical reduction in the minor principal stress with overburden. These data were then used to locate and design the steel and reinforced concrete linings

Jun 19, 1905

By Ben D. Thompson

Cemented Paste Backfill has proven to be of critical importance to the operation of a number of Canadian mines, primarily due to the rapid backfilling rate this method permits. In order to improve the efficiency of this backfill system (i.e. optimize binder contents, fill fence design, and the employment of two stage filling strategies) there is a requirement to better understand its geomechanical behaviour. In response, in-situ experiments have been conducted in long-hole stopes to quantify the evolution of total earth pressures and pore pressures at a series of instrumented points within both the core of the backfill and close to fill fences. The deflection of fill fences as a result of paste loading has been measured and additional instrumentation has also been employed to measure cement hydration, negative pore pressures, and blasting induced vibrations within fresh and cured paste backfill. Installing geotechnical instrumentation within an open long-hole stope can be an extremely complex procedure and this paper details the methods that have been successfully employed. Preliminary results are presented, and the pressures induced by backfill with differing binder contents, at a number of different in-stope locations are considered.

May 1, 2009