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By David White

This paper is the result of a comparative study of ultimate coal analyses made and published by the United States Geological Survey. This study, at first casually undertaken to devise an acceptable classification of coals based on chemical analyses, was continued in connection with a microscopic examination of a number of the coals. The initial comparisons, made from a relatively small number of analyses, not only confirmed a previous conviction that the elimina- tion of oxygen incident to the development of a coal is economically far more important than has been generally suspected, but also showed that oxygen is very nearly as harmful as ash in coal. The immediate purposes of the present study were: (a) To deter- mine more definitely, from a comparative examination of a large number of ultimate analyses, the relative importance of oxygen as an impurity in various coals; (b) to illustrate the transition between various grades of coal of similar origin-transition mainly due to progressive devolatilization, brought about more or less directly by dynamic influences; (c) to ascertain the relative proportions of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon in coking coals, especially with refer- ence to a theory tentatively framed to explain the coking quality; and (d) to forecast the probabilities of successfully treating a large number of coals so as to render them amenable, in a softened condition, to satisfactory study under the microscope. Although the hypothesis as to coking quality finds but partial support in the chemical analyses, its consideration has led to a method of predicting from an analysis with a fair degree of certainty whether any given coal will coke by the ordinary process. The unbroken transition between coals originally similar but now classed in widely different groups, whether of the same age or of different ages, as a result of dynamochemical action, appears demonstrated by the analyses as well as by field observation. This subject will not be

Jan 1, 1911

By E. D. Gardner

This paper on the square-set system of mining embodies the results of a special study of the subject made as a part of the Bureau of Mines general investigation of mining methods and costs. Data for the paper were gathered by the authors during visits to mines using square-set mining, from Information Circulars prepared by consulting engineers to the Bureau on mining methods at individual mines, and from articles in the technical press and the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. The square-set system of mining is very widely applied and is one of the oldest methods in use in the United States. It is mainly employed for extracting relatively high-grade ore in heavy ground. It is also useful in taking out pillars left in mining by other methods. It is used to some extent as an auxiliary method with many underground systems and as an alternate with cut-and-fill, shrinkage, and open-stope methods when heavy ground is encountered. In some cases as much as 50 per cent of the ore may be extracted by square-setting at mines listed as using some other method of mining. A large tonnage is mined yearly by square-setting, principally in the Western States.

Jan 1, 1933

By Roger L. Williams

The Bureau of Mines investigated northern New Jersey as a potential future source of yttrium and the rare-earth elements. The studies, consisting of geophysical surveying, sampling, and exploratory drilling, began in the spring of 1959. A total of three and one-half months were spent in the field collecting data. Thirty-three deposits were investigated, of which five demonstrated some potential resources of yttrium and rare-earth minerals. Results indicate that the deposits examined do not contain quantities of yttrium and the rare-earth elements recoverable under present economic conditions. Detailed studies conducted at the Scrub Oaks mine, near Dover, N. J., delineated a yttrium and rare-earth-bearing zone within the magnetite-hematite ore body that represents a potential low-grade deposit. Beneficiation studies on this deposit indicate that a final product, averaging 31.3 percent rare-earth oxides including yttrium, could be produced through amine and fatty acid flotation procedures with 77 percent recovery. Two hundred and eighty-five feet of diamond drill core was obtained from exploration studies conducted at the Bemco prospect in Sussex County. The deposit averages 2.30 percent rare-earth oxides (including yttrium), 0.45 percent uranium and 0.24 percent thorium. Low-grade deposits were identified at the Canfield phosphat2 mine and the Tanners Brook Monazite placers in Morris County, and the Marble Mountain prospect in Warren County.

Jan 1, 1967

By A. H. WHITE, PERRY BARKER

In a consideration of the various means whereby more economical and more efficient use may be made of the fuels in the United States, the possibility of obtaining for the production of illuminating gas other and cheaper fuels than the Pennsylvania coals demands attention. For the Government, as well as for private corporations and the householder, there can be no more economical and efficient way of using some coals than through the medium of illuminating gas. In the stove, gas reduces the labor cost of heat production and lessens the drudgery of the kitchen; burned in the Welsbach mantle, it is an excellent and cheap illuminant. In addition, the coke that remains after the gas has been recovered furnishes a smokeless fuel that has about the same heating value as anthracite. Hence any investigations that will indicate how local coals through proper treatment may be substituted for the higher priced and rapidly vanishing Pennsylvania gas coals will bring about lower prices for both gas and coke and will also aid to conserve for use in metallurgical processes the coking coals of Pennsylvania and of ot,her States. The annual drain on the gas-coal resources of this country and the importance of the gas and coke industries are indicated by the fact that 8,390,129 tons of coal were carbonized in retorts in the United States in 1909. The resulting salable products from by-product ovens were 15,791,220,000 cubic feet of coal gas, 6,254,644 tons of coke, and 60,126,000 gallons of tar. The total value of all by-products was about $28,508,637.

Jan 1, 1911

By Sidney Katell

The present report, a continuation of the series of Bibliography of Investment and Operating Costs for Chemical and Petroleum Plants, is concerned with articles published from January 1958 through December 1958. The periods covered in previous reports are as follows: January 1930 - August 1948 I. C. 7516 September 1948 - June 1952 I. C. 7705 July 1952 - June 1954 1. C. 7751 July 1954 - December 1956 I. C. 7847 January 1957 - December 1957 I. C. The following sources were used to obtain the references to and the abstracts of the published articles included in this report: 1. Bureau of Mines Information Circulars. 2. Bureau of Mines Reports of Investigations. 3. Chemical Engineering. 4. Chemical Engineering Progress. 5. Coal Age. 6. Coal Utilization. 7. Cost Engineering. 8. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 9. Nucleonics. 10. Oil and Gas Journal. 11. Petroleum Engineering. 12. Petroleum Refiner. 13. World Oil.

Jan 1, 1959

By Wilbert J. Huff

[This is the fifth of a series of annual reports of the explosives Division, Bureau of Mines, United States Department of the Interior.3/ It deals particularly with work done during the period July 1, 1939, to June 30, 1939. The writer and the respective unit leader to whom credit is indicated have directed the various studies outlined.]

Jan 1, 1940

By Effie T. Kurt, Jack Wright, J. W. Watkins, Cynthia Pearson

"The analysis of water produced with crude petroleum has interested oil producers since inception of the industry. Records of the first analysis of mineralized water produced from an oil-productive formation are obscure, and references to the first use of brine analyses to assist in solving problems of petroleum production are not available in the technical literature. However, many early reports of the Federal Bureau of Mines 5-8/ and. Federal Geological Survey, 9-11/ as well as articles in engineering and geological placed special emphasis on journals ,12-l4/ the importance, interpretation, and application of water analyses.One of the earliest applications of water analyses, and still a major one today, is for identification of intrusive waters in oil wells. This may be done by comparing the chemical constituents of a sample of water indigenous to the oil-productive formation with those of samples from upper, water-bearing formations within the same general area. Some earlier investigators recognized the need for analyzing samples of all waters encountered in drilling operations. Ambrose15/ stated, in part, ""In wells being drilled, the engineer should grasp every opportunity to get a true sample of water from each sand. . .,"" and, ""The waters of each oil field are chemically different from those of another field."" The validity of the latter observation and the importance of the former one have been borne out by comparing the results of analyses of many samples and noting the differences in relative concentrations of like constituents of waters from the same geological formation in different localities or oil pools."

Apr 1, 1957

By W. M. Merritts

The control of coal dust created and released during the operation of continuous mining machines in bituminous-coal mines of the United States is a problem. The interest manifested in this problem indicates the seriousness of the hazards involved, particularly when the dust has not been abated at its source and has become air-borne. Officials of the Sunnyside No. 1 mine, Kaiser Steel Corp., were confronted with the problem of abating the coal dust created by operation of a recently installed continuous-mining machine, and they requested the aid of representatives of the Coal-Mine Inspection Branch, Bureau of Mines, United States Department of the Interior, in developing an effective method of allaying the coal dust at its source.

Jan 1, 1951

By A. J. Kauffman Jr.

The Petrographic Section of the Bureau of Mines, Northwest Electrodevelopment Laboratory, Albany, Oreg., annually examines thousands of minerals and rocks. Samples are received from mining, engineers, prospectors, and government agencies, both State and Federal. During the past 2 years certain uncommon minerals have been identified in the samples submitted. Eleven occurrences have been selected for reporting in detail. These selections were made because in most cases a new locality is involved. The data reported are the result of application of the latest techniques, and widely disseminated references concerning each mineral have been added for completeness. Several occurrences have been described by other investigators; in those cases new data have been supplied to supplement the already published information on these occurrences. No uranium-bearing minerals have been included; they will be treated in another paper. The Bureau of Mines does not make chemical analyses or assays for individuals or firms In direct competition with private laboratories. Mineral¬ogical examinations, however, are made for prospectors and the general public. Such examinations a call surface to determine whether the sample in question has possible commercial value. If it has apparent value, the sender is so informed, and suggestions as to its .Arc, development and marketing are offered. The latest scientific apparatus is available to aid in identification. The apparatus includes microscopes, both wide-field and polarizing, a Bunsen-type spectroscope for visual observation of the Zinc and band spectra of many elements, differential thermal apparatus for the examination of hydrous material, apparatus for cutting and mounting either thin sections for study in transmitted or polished surfaces for reflected-light studies, and a high-intensity magnetic separator for concentrating minerals according to their magnetic susceptibility. Also, available, but not an integral part of the Section, are several laboratory-type Geiger counters, a grating spectrograph, and X-ray diffraction apparatus. If need be, all of these tools may be employed to identify a mineral or rock.

Jan 1, 1950

By Kenneth E. Hay

The Bureau of Mines collected coal and coal waste aggregate material from two different mine sites to determine their strength characteristics for use in concrete. The concrete would be placed underground as support walls for ground control in adverse conditions or unique mining applications. A standard mix design was established for a "wet" mix using a water-to-cement (w/c) ratio of 1.0 to facilitate pumping into place. Later, material was collected from four more mine sites and used to make 2-by 2-by 2-ft test blocks with the same w/c ratio. A pull-out cone device and borehole shear tester were used to determine the in situ material strength of the test blocks. These techniques will provide a simple and quick way of determining support wall strength in an underground environment. Test results from the pullout cone de-vice showed a good correlation of 0.98 to test cylinder compressive strengths of the same mix. Results of the borehole shear tester were inconclusive.

Jan 1, 1986

By Selim E. Woodworth

This paper, describing the milling practice on the Mother Lode as typified in the mill of the Argonaut Mining Co. at Jackson, Amador County, Calif., is one of a series prepared by the United States Bureau of Mines. The data herein presented and furnished through the courtesy of E. A. Stent, managing director and vice president of the Argonaut Co., covers operations from 1914 through the year 1929.

Jan 1, 1931

By Frank E. Williams

This Bureau of Mines report deals with the urbanization of Tucson, Ariz., a southwestern city with an arid environment. Zoning regulations concerning known aggregate sources are described, and information relating to projected needs for the urban area is furnished. History of growth is outlined not only for the local aggregate industry, but also for the entire urban area. Past conditions are pointed out and background material for future conditions is provided.

Jan 1, 1967

By Charles L. Harnes

A mineral pigment is a colored substance dug from the ground, which after treatment can be mixed with a drying oil to form a paint. Not all colored earths, however, can be made into satisfactory pigment. Much depends upon the attractiveness and uniformity of the color and the ease of purification. Mineral pigments are distinguished from chemical pigments by a difference in origin and treatment. Chemical pigments are not found ready-made in the earth but must be synthesized or otherwise obtained from other compounds or elements; for example, cadmium yellow, a chemical pigment, is precipitated from a solution of cadmium chloride, hydrochloric acid, and sodium sulfide.

Jan 1, 1942

By d&apos, Kathleen J. Amico

This summary appears in Minerals Yearbook volumes I and III, which cover mineral production in the United States, its island possessions, the Canal Zone, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, as well as the principal minerals imported into and exported from the United States. The several commodity and area chapters contain further details on production. A summary table comparing world and U.S. mineral production also is included. Mineral production may be measured at any of several stages of extraction and processing. The stage of measurement used in the chapter is normally what is termed "mine output." It usually refers to minerals in the form in which they are first extracted from the ground, but customarily includes for some minerals the product of auxiliary processing operations at or near mines.

Jan 1, 1967

By R. W. Van Dolah

An attempt has been made in this investigation to define the conditions under which ammonium nitrate (AN) might detonate as a result of involvement in fire. The initiation of detonation by shocks derived from explosives or from projectile impact was investigated as a function of temperature and charge diameter. A new technique was devised to investigate the burning of raw and contaminated AN under pressure. No transition, to detonation in AN was obtained in the burning experiments. The critical diameter for detonation of fertilizer-grade AN was found to be quite small when the AN was at temperatures just below melting point; this indicates that initiation of detonation may be less difficult at elevated temperatures but such initiation by gas-phase detonation was shown to be unlikely. Transition from burning to detonation was obtained with AN intimately mixed with fuels that included polyethyl-ene, paper, and fuel oil when these were contained in vessels with restricted vents. However, the experimental results supported by an analytical study indicate that the initiation of detonation in AN from fire exposure in normal storage and from transportation incidents is quite improbable. The detonation of AN in recent incidents more likely may have resulted from the effects of adjacent explosions.

Jan 1, 1966

By J. J. Shields

With the increased use of mechanized equipment in mining bituminous coal, production panels are mined out rapidly. To keep current with the rapid completion of production panels, development work must be speeded up also. Although the same type of equipment usually is employed in development as in production places in the same mine, past output per man for development usually was less than from production panels. A study of development practices in 14 mines reveals a tendency toward equalization of the output per man between development and production.

Jan 1, 1957

By R. J. Leary

Significant improvements in surface conditions or mechanical properties of steels have been attributed by several investigators to ladle additions of small quantities of rare-earth metals or their oxides. To investigate systematically these effects in wrought and in cast plain carbon and alloy mechanical steels containing approximately 0.35 percent carbon, heats of four representative compositions were melted by the Bureau of Mines in a 4-ton open-hearth furnace. Each heat was cast into three sets of ingots to exemplify respectively, treatments with (1) rare-earth metals, (2) rare-earth metal oxides, and (3) an untreated set as a control. The development of melting, casting and rolling practices is described and discussed. Lance injection of oxygen shortly after melt raised the temperature of the metal immediately as much as 500° F., principally because mechanical agitation exposed the high-carbon metal to the flame and furnace root. An exceptional degree of superheat in the metal at the termination of the refining period was attributed to oxygen injection during the refining period. Bath temperatures higher than industrial practice were permitted by the all-basic furnace lining. Rates of carbon elimination as high as 0.036 percent carbon per minute were achieved by oxygen injections.

Jan 1, 1961

The Black Hills Mineral Atlas briefly summarizes all pertinent date available on the mines and mineral deposits in the Black Hills that have been explored, developed, mined, or located. The purpose of the atlas is threefold: First, from available date the general potentialities of the Black Hills region can be determined, although it is not possible to calculate actual ore reserves; second, it will provide the necessary basic information regarding a given property or commodity for further detailed study; and third, the compilation is a comprehensive directory of Black Hills deposits.

Jan 1, 1954

By Bernard M. Larsen, Clyde F. Williams, Edward P. Barrett

"Introduction.The Bureau of Mines at its Northwest Experiment station has been studying the production of sponge iron for the past four years, and during 1923 progress advanced to the point industrial applications can be safely considered. A furnace was operated commercially at silver City, Utah, producing about three tons of sponge iron daily.The Bureau was led to undertake this work by the interest in the use of sponge iron for copper precipitation and for conversion to iron and steel in the electric furnace.If a piece of iron oxide is completely reduced at such a low temperature (850 to 900° C) that no sintering or fusion takes place, then the piece of metallic iron formed has the same size and shape as the original piece of oxide on account of the removal of oxygen, the structure is finely porous, exposing a large surface of iron, and the apparent density is less than that of the original piece of iron oxide. This material is called ""sponge iron"". Chemically, it is a very reactive material."

Nov 1, 1924

By J. F. McCoy

The quantitative determination of the mass rate of flow of methane in an underground airway is calculated as the product of the methane concentration and the air flow rate. Velocities are taken at several points and then averaged over the airway cross section to determine the total volume flow. Errors in velocity measurement thereby result in errors in total volume flow as well as the mass flow rate of methane. The purpose of this program was to evaluate existing instrumentation for measuring air velocities in the speed range under 2000 feet per minute; to evaluate the method for determining total air volume flow from the velocity measurements; to evaluate new techniques which may be applied to measuring air velocities; and to design a prototype instrument which represents the best technique based on the evaluation. The instrument should be: a. portable b. self-contained c. insensitive to dust, moisture and temperature changes d. safe for use in gassy mines

Jan 1, 1972