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By R. M. Brick

Segregation can occur only in cast alloys that solidify over a range of temperatures with a difference in composition of liquid and solid phases within this range (ignoring monotectic systems and chemical reactions as in rimming steels). Thus a pure binary eutectic alloy should show no segregation unless undercooling occurs for one of the solid constituents of the eutectic; e.g., chill-cast Al-I2 per cent Si alloys. The phasial condition implicitly described above—solidification over a range of temperatures with a compositional difference between solid and liquid—is found in nearly all solid solutions or combinations of solid solutions and eutec-tics, Metastable conditions of solidification of these types of alloys cause coring; i.e., a difference in composition between the center of a dendrite and its periphery. This composition gradient can be detected usually only by microscopic examination of etched structures; it is a "micro" effect. The gradient of more immediate industrial concern is that between the center of a cast section and the surface layers. This gross (macro) effect is usually deter-minable only by sampling of the casting at different points, with chemical analyses of each sample. If the compositional difference is of the same type as in coring, the first parts to freeze being enriched in higher-melting-point constituents, and vice versa, the effect is called normal segregation. When what is apparently the first part of the casting to solidify shows a higher concentration of low-melting-point constituents, the effect is called inverse segregation. These macro effects are quite separate from the micro effect, coring, yet the latter must be described first because it is an essential part of the picture. Coring Solid Solution, Ni-Cu The nickel-copper phase diagram is reproduced in Fig. Ia, in which the solid lines represent the equilibrium liquidus I, 3, 7 and solidus 2, 5, 8, and where the vertical I, 4: 8 represents a 55 per cent Cu alloy. Upon moderately rapid solidification, the first dendritic axes of composition 2 (see Fig. Ib) start to form at a temperature somewhat under I. Solidification continues by growth of the dendritic nuclei, but at temperature 4 the increment solidifying is of composition 5. The rapidity of this crystal growth prevents diffusion of nickel and copper atoms from adjusting the composition of the entire dendrite at 5, which it would be under equilibrium conditions. The average composition of a specific dendrite, or the entire solid phase, at temperature 4 might be that indicated

Jan 1, 1945

By Christopher G. Atwater

The object of this paper is to describe and discuss the progress that has been made, up to the present date, in the development of the modern by-product coke-oven. There are few members of the Institute who have not heard more or less of the by-product oven-installation, and there are many whose acquaintance with it is intimate and practical. Since the general opinion on the subject has hardly become crystallized as yet, it is hoped that this paper will at least furnish matter for discussion. In order to obtain an idea of the present status of the industry in the principal iron-producing countries, the following table has been prepared : Table Showing Proportion of Coke Made in By-Product Ovens in Various Countries. United Kingdom (1898, Mr. George Beilby). Short Tons. Per Cent. Coal coked in by-product ovens,. .. 1,400,000 7.9 Coal coked in blast-furnaces with by-product recovery,.......2,240,000 12.7 Coal coked in non-by-product ovens,. . 14,000,000 79.4

Jan 1, 1903

By Cyril Stanley Smith

For many years sulphur and its congeners selenium and tellurium have been regarded as very harmful elements in copper and copper-rich alloys. Like many similar prejudices, this has been found to be partly wrong. All three of these elements actually have no great effect on the working properties of copper and its alloys, and are desirable additions in that they considerably enhance the machinability of alloys in which they are present. Because of their possible commercial importance, a study of the machinability and other properties of the pure binary alloys was made, as described in this paper, and the effect of selenium on a large number of copper alloys was determined. The current opinion regarding the deleterious effects of elements in this group undoubtedly arose because of occasional failures of tough-pitch copper containing unusually high tellurium, and because of the well-known fact that sulphur causes spewing and unsoundness in tough-pitch copper. Siebe,1 also Deretchey and Margolina,2 studied the effect of sulphur on copper and showed that in the absence of oxygen it was present in the form of copper sulphide, which was less harmful to the properties than an equivalent amount of copper oxide. No data have been published on selenium and tellurium, although the statement is often made, following Eggleston,3 that tellurium makes copper hot-short. Copper specifications call for only traces of these elements. Skowronski and Mosher4 give data on the effect of selenium and tellurium on the conductivity of tough-pitch copper. In private communication Mr. Skowronski says that the samples were hot-forged from small castings and drawn to 0.081 in. diameter, but it should not be inferred from this that these elements are harmless to the working properties of wirebars and commercial shapes. Constitution and Microstructure Constitution.—Sulphur, selenium and tellurium exist in their alloys with copper in the form of copper sulphide, selenide or telluride. These compounds are practically insoluble in the solid state and possess limited

Jan 1, 1938

By J. P. Myers, A. H. Flagg, E. S. Mardock, J. L. P. Campbell, J. M. Terry

The development process for the use of radioactive tracers as a means of locating zones of permeability is discussed. The general techniques for the safe handling of radioactive materials is given as developed by the Lane-Wells Co. and Well Surveys, Inc. The prob1em and. successes with tracers in waterflood systetns, oil and gas injection profiles, fracture sand tracing, squeeze (ement tracing. lost circulution, and cement top localion are discussed and illustrated. INTRODUCTION The exact location of the permeable zones lying within the productive horizon has been a major problem faced by the petroleum engineer for decades, and it has been a problem which has seldom been solved with certainty. Reservoir engineers usually have to incorporate a question mark in their estimates of future reservoir performance because of blanks in the core data. Although the use of radioactivity or electrical logs for the estimation of porosity has been of great assistance in furnishing a record for the reservoir engineer, this application of logging data has not completely solved the problem. In short, the industry needs an in-situ well surveying method which can locate and estimate the permeability of the zones existing within a given pay section. The initial development work with radioactive tracers has been towards filling the need for permeability information. Progress to date permits the location of permeable zones with a qualitative estimate of their relative importance with respect to permeability. The calibration of the method is still incomplete. but present development work on tracer preparations, borehole effect correction factors, and instrument limitations give a promise of quantitative "permeability profiles" in the near future. The development work on the radioactive tracer method discussed here began several years ago in the laboratories of Well Surveys, Inc., in Tulsa. At the outset of this work, three approaches to the problem were visualized as follows: 1. A fluid carrying a soluble, chemically inert, gamma ray emitting isotope is pumped down the borehole and out into the permeable zones of the formation. The greater gamma activity of the permeable zones thus permits them to be differentiated from the impermeable zones which contain no active tracer. It was found difficult to obtain a tracer material which was chemically inert. Absorption to some degree was noted in all experiments. Also, it proved impossible to hold the tracer near the horehole where it could be logged. 2. A fluid carrying a soluble, gamma ray emitting isotope is pumped down the borehole into the permeable formations. In contrast with proposal 1, above. the tracer is chemically active with the fluids and materials in the pore spaces of the permeable zones. The permeable zones are thus indicated by their higher radioactivity level. The main difficulty in this proposal was finding a tracer material which would not be absorbed by shale as well as in the permeable porosity. Very little field work was done with this system. 3. Radioactive particles suspended within the injection fluid are pumped down the well. As the fluid enters the permeable formations, the radioactive particles are filtered out on borehole wall. The permeable zones are differentiated from the impermeable by the gamma ray activity deposited on the formation wall.

Jan 1, 1956

By F. H. Kihlstedt

The Larap iron deposits, 125 miles east of Manila, are the biggest high-grade iron deposits in the Philippines, and have in seven years produced nearly 4 million tons of 60 per cent ore. Magnetic surveying followed by churn and diamond drilling cheaply developed a score of million tons. The ore zone is a wedge of metamorphic rocks in fresh, Miocene sediments overlain by agglomerates, which seem to have filled a river valley eroded in the sediments. A mild overthrust of the competent agglomerates crumbled the shale in front. Solutions gradually turned it into more competent hornfels and deposited pyrite, then magnetite and pyrite in the pores. As the temperature rose large bodies of magnetite with some pyrite were deposited by replacement and in open cavities in tensional areas of overthrust shears. At still higher temperature magnetite and calcium-magnesium silicates formed other bodies in similar cavities, and finally the thrust zone was invaded by syenite porphyry, causing high-temperature alteration products. Possibly, as temperature abated, more high-grade ore was deposited. The complicated faulting indicates dynamic, chronological and spatial changes of mineralization rather than zoning in a static system. Noncommercial copper, molybdenum and some gold accompanied the iron mineralization. In the thirties the Philippines gained a justified reputation as a country of considerable mineral wealth. Traces of Chinese workings show that these earliest travelers and traders had in a small way exploited the latent gold resources in the Islands. The Spaniards continued this for centuries, but did not succeed in establishing any steady mining industry. Modern technology was required to get it started. The rapid development in the last decade before the war got its impetus from several financial factors, the return to sugar growers of previously collected taxes, the influx of Spanish capital during the civil war in Spain, the influx of Chinese capital when the Japanese started their "China incident," and others. Directly or indirectly much of this capital reached the mining industry; in particular, gold mining. Out of the turmoil of an exceptional mining boom emerged a sufficient number of good and well managed gold properties to send the production to a level above that of any single state in the United States at the time. Other ore deposits besides those of gold also received their share, and for a country without any heavy industries at

Jan 1, 1949

By Cyril Stanley Smith, Earl W. Palmer

STRIP of any of the metals used for deep drawing operations occasionally yields cups that are defective because of a rim that varies in height around the cup in a wave-like manner Some such defects are traceable to tools or other press factors, but when the protuberances formed (usually four in number on brass and other copper alloys) are symmetrically disposed with respect to the rolling direction of the strip, they are invariably attributable to the metal The effect is known as "caring" and the protuberances are called "ears" Other terms frequently heard are "tips," "scallops," and "corners " It is recognized that the effect is most commonly a result of a directional crystal structure produced by rolling and annealing operations in the manufacture of the metal strip Numerous papers dealing with various aspects of the caring effect have appeared in the literature, those listed in the references' being especially interesting and valuable An investigation of the factors influencing caring of brass cups has been in progress in the laboratories of the American Brass Co for several years, and it was thought desirable to make some of the results generally available in summarized form The present paper discusses many factors that do and do not contribute to ear formation In addition, a section is devoted to methods of minimizing the caring tendency of brass sheet by proper selection of the cold-rolling and annealing schedule by which it is produced In the space available, it is impossible to quote detailed experimental procedures and numerical results However, the authors make no statement that they do not believe to be properly substantiated, either by experimental evidence obtained under laboratory conditions or by experience in the actual production of deep-drawing brass in the brass mill MECHANISM OF EAR FORMATION It must be clearly understood that the formation on cups of symmetrical ears, four or more in number, is attributable solely to the strip metal, and results from the strip having different deformation characteristics in different directions The tools used in the drawing process, or the type and completeness of lubrication of the strip, have nothing to do with the problem of ears, although they do, of course, greatly affect the "drawing quality" of the strip and the general appearance of the cup A single tip may be drawn up on the rim of a cup because of misalignment of the tools, or because the gauge of metal varies from side to side of the strip The two-ear form that sometimes appears is also traceable to gauge variations However, the four-ear and six-ear symmetrical forms that we are concerned with here are caused by factors inherent in the structure of the metal itself

Jan 1, 1942

By J. K. Kerver, J. S. Osoba, J. G. Richardson, J. A. Hafford

A detailed study of a number of methods of relative permea-abilitv measurement has been made in a search for the tech-niqrle most suited to routine analysis of cores taken from reservoir rock. It has been found from tests run on the same samples of core material by a number of techniques that the Penn State, Hassler, Hafford, and dispersed feed techniques all yield results which are felt to be reliable. Conditions under which the faster single core dynamic technique may be used are described. Further work on the calculation of relative permeabilities to oil from data obtained by the gas drive method is needed before this latter rapid method can be utilized. Correlations between theoretical studies and experimental results have been obtained in studies of the boundary effect. pressure distribution in two-phase flow, and gas expansion effects. Previous conclusions that the effects of the outflow boundary could be made negligibly small have been substantiated. Results of experimentally determined oil and gas pressure distributions along a core sample during flow are presented. Further studies of the effects of rate of flow in the measurement of relative permeability-saturation relations have shown that results are independent of the rate of flow as long as the flow rate is below the point where inertial effects commence. An analysis of the effects of a severalfold expansion of gas along the flow path indicates that while saturation gradients are induced in the test sample, the errors caused by this phenomenon in relative permeability measurements are small. INTRODUCTION Many pages of literature have been devoted to pointing out the need for relative permeability-saturation relations in reservoir engineering. One of the most attractive ways of obtaining this information is by the analysis of samples of core material taken from the formation in question, and again literature has described man); methods for obtaining these data. It is the purpose of this paper to present the work that has been done in the study of some of these published methods together with some other methods that have been recently developed in this laboratory. Also, a study of some of the factors that influence the laburatory determination of relative permeability-saturation relations is presented. FACTORS WHICH AFFECT LABORATORY STUDY OF FLUID FLOW THROUGH RESERVOIR ROCK To determine relative permeability-saturation relations of samples of reservoir rock in the laboratory, it is important to know what factors affect these measurements in order that the magnitude of these effects can be ascertained and steps then can be taken to eliminate or, in some cases, to minimize them. The factors that have been investigated are the boundary effect, the effect of gas expansion. and the rate effect. Boundary Effect In laboratory experiments in which two immiscible fluids are flowed through a porous medium, there exists a discontinuity of capillary properties at the outflow face. This discontinuity exists became the fluids pass from a region of finite capillary pressure in the sample to a region of zero capillary pressure in an open receiving vessel. The capillary forces existing in the core caupe the rock to tend to retain

Jan 1, 1952

By Robert Forsyth

As the latest plant on a large scale, the new Bessemer works of the North Chicago Rolling Mill Company, at South Chicago, presents some features of interest to steel-makers, I have ventured to lay before the Institute a short description of that plant, and some* remarks upon the practice there. At the time the South Chicago works were designed the adoption of the basic process in this country seemed imminent. Experience in Europe had demonstrated the perfect success of the process technically, and the question of its commercial value was one which, for any particular works, would have to be settled by its special advantages for procuring the necessary ores and basic materials. Under the circumstances, it was thought best at South Chicago to so arrange the plant as to allow the introdnction of the basic whenever it became advisable, and to make such other changes from the standard type of Bessemer plant as the state of the art seemed to demand and to foreshadow. As the use of metal direct from the blast furnace, while generally condemned by experts here, was in such successful practice in Europe (particularly in connection with the basic process), there was no doubt about its feasibility, while its economy in fuel and labor made it especially attractive to the Western manufacturer. It was accordingly decided to build a direct-metal plant adapted to the basic process. The ingots made were to be rolled into rails at one heat, and were to be of such size (12 inches square and long enough for three and four rails) as to be readily and quickly handled by the rolling machinery proposed. This small size of ingots, and the large number cast from each heat of 10 tons, made it necessary to provide a good deal of room in the casting-pit—much more than in any previons plant—and to put down extra facilities for handling ingots. To meet the delays incident to the basic process—to insure that one vessel should be always blowing if necessary, and to provide opportunity for current repairs to linings, etc.—it was decided that three vessels should be used, and, to properly concentrate the work of

Jan 1, 1884

By J. D. H. Strickland, K. J. Jackson

IN previous papers' ' details were given of the constructlon and use of an apparatus to study the rate of chlorine consumption and the rate of sul- fate and sulfur production when dilute aqueous chlorine solutions were allowed to react with pyrite and galena in acid solutions at or near room temperature. The reaction with pyrite was very rapid, and hence entirely transport-controlled in its kinetics, and produced only ferric and sulfate ions. The behavior of galena was much more complex and was studied in some detail. Sulfur monochloride could be detected as a reaction product and both

Jan 1, 1959

By G. Birkbeck, T. C. Wells

Pearlite morphology in three commercially produced, low-carbon steels has been studied using optical and electron microscopy. A reduction in the cooling rate from 600° to 6°C per hr increased the interlamellar spacing but had little effect on pearlite content. The form of the lamellae was also assessed in terms of a new parameter, the ratio of lamellae length to interhmellar spacing. The variation of this parameter with cooling rate depended on steel composition. For each steel, it would appear that an optimum cooling rate exists at which lamellar pearlite can be produced to the greatest extent, though not necessarily the same extent in different steels. PeARLITE morphology depends principally on steel composition, prior austenite grain size, and either cooling rate or isothermal transformation temperature. Alloying with manganese,'" fine grain size,374 and slow cooling rates reduce the likelihood that a well-developed lamellar structure will be produced. Instead, imperfect structures usually consisting of partly globular carbides are formed in a ferrite matrix. Such structures have been described as granular.1,2,5 degenerate,6 or semi4-pearlite. Manganese additions also progressively lower the eutectoid temperature and the carbon concentration at the eutectoid so so that, for a given carbon content. the pearlite fraction is increased as manganese is added. While the effects of manganese are understood in a general way, quantitative studies of pearlite morphology have been carried out mainly on steels of eutectoid composition;9 little quantitative data is available for low-carbon steels. Certain anomalies exist in the behavior of steels containing -1.5 pct Mn, however. The pearlite morphology in niobium-treated steel differs from that which is generally accepted as typical of low-carbon/manganese steels in that a reasonably well developed lamellar structure is sometimes observed. In the present work, the effects of changes in cooling rate from 600° to 6°C per hr on the pearlite morphology in three commercially produced, low-carbon steels have been studied by both optical and electron microscopy. I) MATERIALS The steels were of the following types: 1) 0.1 pct C, 0.4 pct Mn steel (En 2, a composition similar to specification SAE 1010); 2) niobium-treated, 0.2 pct C, 1 1/2 pct Mn steel (BS 968:1962); 3) silicon-killed 0.2 pct C, 1 1/2 pct Mn steel (En 144, a composition similar to SAE 1320). The chemical analysis for each steel is given in Table I. To facilitate the comparison of pearlite morphology in the three steels, steels 1 and 3 (which were obtained as 1/2-in. plate and 1-in.-diam bar, respectively) were hot-rolled in the laboratory to $ in. thickness, finishing at around 850°C. The BS 968:1962 was received as 1/8-in. plate finished at 885°C and was not further worked. Specimens from each steel were heat-treated in vacuo at 950°C for 1 hr and cooled at rates of 600°, 60°, and 6°C per hr. 11) EXPERIMENTAL Pearlite contents were determined by point counting (500 points) on longitudinal sections mechanically polished and etched in 2 pct nital. Pearlite morphology is usually considered in terms of interlamellar spacing. For pearlite colonies randomly distributed in space and having a true, constant interlamellar spacing So Pellissier et al.9 determined the distribution curve for the apparent spacings of the lamellae on a random section plane. The areal fraction fs of the pearlite colonies occupied by apparent spacings up to a limiting value S is given by:

Jan 1, 1969

By Carll H. Samans, Charles R. Austiuon

It has been known for several years1 that certain alloys of the Konal type, containing commercial cobalt (99.32 per cent Co and 0.42 per cent Ni) and varying amounts of ferrotitanium, exhibit very high tensile strengths at 600°C. However, their proportional limits and yield pints are relatively low. published data' for the alloys quenched in water from 950°C. and then tested at 600°C. are summarized in the upper section of Fig. I. Similar specimens that were aged at 650°C. for 72 hr., after quench and prior to testing at 600°C., gave the result; shown in the: lower section of Fig. I. In the present work the investigation of the properties of these materials has been extended by a study of the tensile deformation characteristics in moderately longtime tests at 600°, 700' and 800°C. after quenching from various solution temperatures. In addition, some metallographic studies have been made to correlate with the deformation tests, and to obtain information on the quasi-binary system cobalt-Fe2Ti. The material, very kindly furnished by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co. in the form of hot-swaged rods of 3/16-in. diameter, analyzed as shown in Table 1. The alloys, when originally made up,' were based upon an iron-titanium compound, Fe3Ti, as indicated by the work of

Jan 1, 1941

By H. W. Rogers

THE first steam shovels used in this country were built by the Otis Company, of Boston, about 50 years ago, but as they were of very crude construction and rather unsuccessful only a few were built. For possibly 10 years prior to 1884 successful steam shovels were made and used on certain classes of work, but it was not until that time that they were manufactured in quantities and began to play an important part in all classes of excavation. From that time up to the present day there have been gradual but continuous improvements on the original shovel, not only in the mechanical construction, but also in the design of boilers and engines which are best adapted to this class of service. In proposing a change from steam to electric operation we have to deal with a steam equipment which has not only proved its worth but has probably reached its highest stage of development and efficiency. That the electric shovel is a possibility cannot be denied, as at present from 12 to 18 shovels are in operation in this country. These shovels may be divided into three classes: the friction electric, which is operated by a single constant-speed motor with friction clutches; the three or four motor direct-current equipment, and the three or four motor alternating-current equipment. It is the second and third classes that I wish to deal with, as the first class does not compare favorably with the steam shovel so far as speed is concerned, although it may be operated as cheaply. There is probably no other class of machinery that presents a duty cycle as severe as that of the shovel, which is very short, varying from 7 to 12 sec. on the hoist, from 7 to 12 sec. on the thrust, and from 10 to 18 sec. on the swing, making a complete cycle in from 17 to 30 sec., and the motor to meet these requirements must have a sufficiently low armature inertia to permit of rapid acceleration and quick reversals under small power. It should also be a motor of rugged design, as it must be subjected to severe overloads and shocks and frequent reversals. This is especially true of the hoist motors and, to a lesser degree, of the swing motor; the thrust motor being practically stalled during the digging operation, although it may revolve or overhaul, according to conditions, and is operated at full speed only after the hoisting operation is completed.

Jan 2, 1914

By R. Hoffmann

The Waelz process produces oxides of volatilizable metals from ores, metalliferous products and residues. The process was originally used for recovering zinc and lead, where tailings and residues containing those metals had accumulated at mines or smelters, but it is applicable for obtaining tin, arsenic or other volatilizable metals. It is useful when other methods of obtaining the metals from the ores or residues are too difficult or expensive or show too low a recovery. The Waelz process was developed in 1923 for the treatment of large calamine dumps in Upper Silesia, which showed zinc contents of 8 to 10 per cent. and lead contents up to 3 per cent. The rapid development of the process, from the first trials up to the plants now working or in course of erection, is shown in Fig. 1. The first industrial Waelz plant was started in 1925. Within two years the capacity of the working plants reached 700 tons material per day of 24 hr. During the year 1928 the daily capacity of the plants now at work or in course of erection will rise

Jan 1, 1928

By A. Keil

TO measure the absolute conductivity of metallic specimens it is generally necessary to have exact geometrical shapes and good electrical contact with the test-piece. To overcome limitations of the standard methods, an electronic conductivity-meter* Trade name, Sigmatest; model Dr. F. Forster; Reutlingen, Ger-many. has been developed, which works on the principle of inducing high frequency eddy-currents in the specimens and measuring the reaction of these curients on a measuring coil.',' To attach the instrument to the test specimen, a flat area of about 10 mm diam is all that is necessary. The reading is taken off a scale calibrated in pet of International Annealed Copper Standard. The induced eddy-currents are propagated in a circular motion parallel to the surface. Thickness of the layer included in a measurement depends on the frequency used. With a frequency of 60 kc per sec, the penetration of the currents was 0.8 mm at the upper limit of the scale, and 2 mm at the lower limit. The method is limited to nonferrous metals and other applications have been described elsewhere." The object of the present investigation was to detect the formation and growth of surface layers of differing conductivity, and to determine the depth to which these changes could be observed. A well known phenomenon which illustrates the problem is the internal oxidation of certain silver alloys containing base metal solutes, such as copper or cadmium, when they are annealed in an oxidizing atmosphere.4, 5 Until now, the only methods available for following these phenomenon have been metallo-graphic examination and hardness tests.0, 7 Changes in mechanical properties of copper alloys by internal oxidation were recently discussed in a more general way by Martin and Smith." When measuring these conductivity changes it must be remembered that the only absolute values of conductivity are those of 1) the nontreated homogeneous specimen, and 2) the final values obtained with a surface layer of depth comparable to the penetration of the eddy-currents. All intermediate values refer to the mixed conductivities of the transformed surface layer and the untransformed alloy, and are thus readings of relative value only. Experimental Results Specimens were annealed for 1/2 hr at 800°C in hydrogen, and the internal oxidation was carried out by thermal treatment in air at 800°C. Fig. 1 shows the results of the first series of experiments. With internal oxidation of a solid solution of 8 pet Cd in silver, the conductivity rises continuously until the surface layer formed has become thick enough to be the deciding factor (about 400µ). Precipitates of CdO are mainly in the form of points, Fig. 2, and, as a result, the electric contact between the silver crystals is not distorted by them. Brine11 tests were run with a 1.25 mm ball and a 7.812 kg load. The specimen annealed in hydrogen and oxidized to a depth of 400µ had a hardness of 40 Bhn,

Jan 1, 1959

By H. G. Schneider

The Smackover oil and gas field lies in Ouachita and Union Counties, Ark., in the south-central part of the state, in T.15 and 16S., R.15, 16, and 17W. It is 10 miles north of El Dorado, the principal business and railroad center in the south-central part of the state, and extends from the town of Smackover in all directions. Productive territory having an aggregate area of nearly 55 sq. mi. has been developed. It extends 6 miles from north to south and 12 miles from east to west. The field may be divided into two parts: the east district, which includes the area east of the town of Smackover, and the west district, which includes the area west of the town of Smackover. In relation to the neighboring productive fields of Arkansas, the Smackover field is 9 miles north of the El Dorado oil and gas field, 8 miles slightly west of north of the East El Dorado oil and gas field, and 16 miles east of the Stephens oil field. Smackover was discovered in May, 1922, when the Oil Operators Tnist drilled well No. 1 on the J. T. Murphy farm, in the southeast quarter of sec. 8, T.16S., R.15W. This well is located almost on the top of the Norphlet dome and was drilled to the Nacatoch sand. It had an initial open flow volume of 30,000,000 cu. ft. of dry gas per day, and a rock pressure of 950 lb. per sq. in. In July, 1922, the V. K. F. Co. completed the first oil well in sec. 29, T.l5S., R.l5W., on the north side of the Norphlet dome, and 3 miles north of the first gas well. This well started the active development of the north and northwest sides of the dome.] The field was extended westwards, when oil was discovered in the Nacatoch sand, during October, 1922, in sec. 4, T.l6S., R.l6W., 51/2 miles west of the original gas well. This opened up the so-called "light oil district," which is located on a structural terrace, for which the name

Jan 1, 1924

By J. M. Bugbee

The engineer and the conservationist agree that effective water drive is the desirable reservoir production mechanism. Water drive may result either from the expansion of edge water, the reservoir water bordering an oil pool, or from the artesian flow of edge water from the outcrop. Thus, the extent of the reservoir has an important bearing upon both the rate and the ultimate quantity of water influx to an oil pool. Lens-type reservoirs are generally recognizable, but the complete structure of the more important domal types, having possible limitations from crestal and synclinal faulting, is not well understood. The delineation from cores, electrical logs and exploitation phenomena of the crestal portions of reservoirs is increasingly exact. This paper suggests that inference from these factual pictures, combined with the scattered well and geophysical data of the synclines and with consideration of the dynamics of structural formation, may be applied to solving the complete geologic structure. Since faulting on the domes and in the synclines may effectively seal and thus limit the size of a reservoir and bar additional water influx, consideration of geologic structure and its possible effects is essential to complete analysis and prediction of reservoir performance. Introduction Implicit in reservoir studies is the fact that the oil must be displaced from the reservoir rock by some other fluid, either gas or water, and this understanding yields the terms descriptive of the major reservoir production mechanisms, gas expansion and water drive' Three recent papers1-2-3 make clear the economic and conservation preeminence of Water drive as a production mechanism; in fact, the title of the latest of these is " Production under Effective Water Drive as a Standard for Conservation Practice." There appears to be an assumption at times among analysts that the effectiveness of a water drive is solely dependent on the rate of oil production; that is, if water drive appears to be insufficient or lacking, a lower oil-recovery rate would increase or reveal it. This assumption might result from the fact that the analysis has been wholly developed during the period of production curtailment; that is, since 1929. The writer takes it that the recurrent phrase in De Golyer's paper,3 "some degree of water drive," is related to this assumption. In California, an extraordinary phrase, "inactive water drive," is rather common and the connotation of uncertainty regarding our knowledge of reservoir performance is evident. Wyckoff2 speaks of the type of reservoir and performance as follows: "In general, reservoirs may be any one or a combination of domal, faulted, lenticular, or stratigraphic traps. Insofar as the dynamic performance of such reservoirs is concerned, the particular type merely determines whether regional flow is symmetrical as in a uniformly developed domal or lenticular type, or one-sided as in many stratigraphic or faulted traps." But whether the flow is

Jan 1, 1943

By C. H. Herty

The reactions that occur in the basic open-hearth process are complicated and are subject to many different factors such as temperature, slag composition and rate of boiling of the bath. It is difficult, therefore, to present an extended theoretical discussion of open-hearth operations without confusing the theory of the process with the application of the theory. This paper attempts to present some of the theory of the open-hearth process without mentioning theory at any point, simply giving some of the practical applications of results founded both on theory and practice and on experimental work both in small and large furnaces. It is hoped that an answer to a number of questions commonly asked by the open-hearth operator may be found in this paper. Discussion of the subject matter is taken up more or less in the order in which a heat ie worked, beginning with the oxidation of the scrap charged, sulfur absorption by the scrap, calcination of the limestone, and extending into the pig iron for the charge, the slags formed during the process, and some of the phenomena occurring in deoxidation of the steel and in its action in the molds. Oxidation of Scbap When scrap is charged into a furnace it immediately begins to oxidize, Oxidation is carried out by.three reactions: Fe + H20 + FeO + Hz (absorbs heat) (1) Fe + C02 + FeO + CO (absorbs heat) (2: Fe+ ½O2 + FeO (gives off heat) (3: The product of oxidation contains some Fe3O4, but FeO usually predominates on account of the iron present in close contact with the scale formed For a given type of scrap the amount of oxidation is controlled by thc fuel and by the excess air being carried in the furnace, the temperature 01 the furnace, and the length of time that the scrap is in contact with the furnace gases. In general, less oxidation occurs when the furnace is rur hot so that the scrap melts rapidly. More important in operation thar the two variables atmosphere and temperature, is the type of scrap being

Jan 1, 1929

By William Waters Van Ness

The Pierrefitte mines, situated in the South of France, in the district of the Hautes-Pyrenees, owe their name to the fact that the first mining operations of any extent, and of comparatively reccnt date, were carried out in the neighborhood of the village of Pierrefitte, which is a branch terminus of the Midi railway. The Pierrefitte mines, however, embrace a wide extent of country and several different concessions, on most of which comparatively little exploration-work has been done. The portion of the property presently to be described is a zone running roughly E—W., over a distance of about 5 miles from the valley of Cauterets to the valley of Estaing, the ridge dividing these valleys being a spur of the main chain of the Pyrenees, and running more or less at right angles to it. According to local tradition, which various indications tend to confirm, these mines are of ancient date, the first workings being attributed to the Romans, who are supposcd to have sought not only the lead but also the silver which is contained in the ore. Old slags have been found in the neighborhood which might well have been produced from the cupellation of lead-ores. These old workings, while of considerable extent at times, do not seem to have extended beyond a depth of 100 ft., even this depth being somewhat exceptional. The old notarial records of the district show that mines were known to exist, and that they were even worked, in the sixteenth century, but since the mines were abandoned (by the Romans or others) considerably prior to this period, very little

Jan 1, 1909

By D. L. Martin, E. R. Parker

In a previous paper one of the authors observed that the rate of cooling from the anneal prior to testing greatly influenced the life of copper under sustained load at 200°C. Furnace-cooled bars of oxygen-free copper (with and without silver) had a life four to twenty-five times that of the water-quenched specimens. The addition of 0.054 per cent silver to the oxygen-free copper increased the life at a stress of 20,000 lb. per sq. in. from about 2 hr. to 50 hr. Fractures in these bars were intercrystalline. An explanation was advanced to account for the profound influence of cooling rate on the rupture properties at 200°C. The suggestion offered was that at the high annealing temperature the minor constituents are distributed at random. By water quenching, this condition is maintained at room temperature, whereas furnace cooling permits some segregation at the grain boundaries. The higher concentration of the minor constituents in the grain boundaries results in a. strengthening, so that a longer life at a given stress and .temperature results. Small amounts of cadmium or manganese have also been found to increase the life of copper at 200°C., and to a much greater extent than silver.2 The increase in the long-time strength of copper resulting from small additions of cadmium or silver appears to be related, indirectly at least, to the higher softening temperatures of such alloys. The elements, such as silver or cadmium, which greatly increase the rupture life of copper also cause large increases in the softening temperature. As little as 0.05 per cent of cadmium or silver is sufficient to raise the softening temperature more than 100°.3,4 The effects of cooling rate and of minor constituents on the rupture properties are of considerable fundamental as well as practical interest; therefore a more detailed study of their nature was conducted and is reported in this paper. Experimental Procedure Materials The materials studied in this investigation may conveniently be classified in two groups: one consisting of a wide variety of commercial coppers, and the other composed of special high-purity, laboratory-prepared coppers. The commercial materials were tested to determine whether or not the effect of cooling rate occurred with all coppers, whereas the high-purity coppers were investigated in order to establish a basis for evaluating the effect of minor constituents on the rupture properties. In Table I are given the analyses of the coppers tested. The samples I to 6 are commercial materials and were obtained for the most part from stock supplies.*

Jan 1, 1944

By A. H. Larson, T. P. McNulty

RECENTLY, an investigation of the absorption of sulfur dioxide gas in molten binary copper alloys was conducted. A Sieverts-type apparatus, consisting of a mercury-filled gas dispensing buret and a mercury manometer, was used initially for determining the volume of gas absorbed as a function of pressure. The equilibration behavior of the alloys studied indicated that the mercury in the gas measuring system was absorbing sulfur dioxide. Owing to the widespread use of mercury as a displacement medium in absorption studies, an investigation was made to determine the nature and magnitude of the mercury - sulfur dioxide absorption effect. The gas measuring system was modified by substituting a Worden Quartz Products Type PDHV fused-quartz-spiral pressure gage for the mercury-filled dispenser and manometer. The dispensed gas volume at known temperature and atmospheric pressure was measured by evacuating a Pyrex vessel of known volume and by admitting sulfur dioxide into the vessel until the attached quartz pressure gage registered atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure was measured concurrently with a separate mercury barometer. The volume of the empty sample chamber and its attendant apparatus was determined by measuring the equilibrium pressure accompanying the addition of a measured volume of sulfur dioxide into the initially evacuated system. The volume of the mercury sample was calculated from the density of mercury at the temperature of the study (25°C). Measured volumes of sulfur dioxide were then dispensed into the system and the equilibrium pressure accompanying each gas addition was determined. From the difference between the system volume and the mercury volume, the number of moles of gaseous sulfur dioxide remaining in the system at each pressure was calculated. The difference between the number of moles of gas dispensed into the system, denoted Enso2: and the number of moles of gas remaining in the system after absorption equilibrium had been attained, denoted nso2(g), was equal to the number of moles of absorbed gas, denoted nSO2. The number of moles of absorbed gas was then converted to absorbed volume, denoted VSo2, in cu cm at stp conditions of (PC and 760 mm Hg. Table I contains calculated values of Snso2, nSo2(g), and VSo2 for different sulfur dioxide pressures. In the original system, denoted Run I, volume limitations of the gas dispensing system prevented absorption studies at equilibrium pressures near atmospheric pressure, so a different gas dispensing system, denoted Run 11, was used for determining the last pressure reading in Table I. The data in Table I are expressed in terms of the absorption of sulfur dioxide in 49.68 cu cm of mercury. In Fig. 1, these data are expressed in terms of the absorption of sulfur dioxide in 100 cu cm of mercury. Since the absorption data plotted in Fig. 1 show a linear relationship, the volume of sulfur dioxide absorbed in mercury is a function of the first power of pressure. The absorption reaction is So2(gas) = SO2 (in Hg) The first-power pressure dependence, coupled with the fact that the sulfur dioxide could be removed from the mercury by applying vacuum, indicated reversible

Jan 1, 1967