Search Documents

By W. R. Ingalls

THE bases of the work by the committee whereof I am chairman were (1) the abolition of extra-lateral rights and (2) the preservation of the maximum of the existing laws. The matter of extra-lateral rights had been under prolonged discussion among mining men and up to the time when our com-mittee began its work (in 1917) the expression of opinion in every way whereby it could be made known -and those ways were extensive-was only a little short of being unanimous that extralateral rights ought to be abolished. I have not observed important evidence indicating a change of opinion on the subject since 1917. ABOLITION OF DISCOVERY LOGICAL Now, when it be decided that extralateral rights ought to be abolished, there can not be merely a simple change to that effect, but it is found that consequential changes are necessary all the way through the existing laws. Abolition of extralateral rights implies abolition of discovery as a prerequisite to location, for otherwise there would be no legal means for locating claims on the dip of a vein. Quite apart from this consideration, abolition of discovery as a prerequisite to location is supported by other good reasons. Among these are the occurrence of orebodies with no exposure on the surface and which often are hidden at great depth. A prospector who has reason to suspect the occurrence of such an orebody must have legal means for the location of a claim within which to explore, and obviously he may. not be able to make any discovery on the surface sufficient to locate and hold legally such a claim under the terms of the law as it stands at present. As a matter of fact, discovery as a prerequisite to location was abolished by common consent many years ago, not only for the reasons that I have given here-inbefore but also for others. It is highly desirable to revise the mining law in this respect, so that it will conform to the conditions of practice and not require people to perjure themselves in making locations, even if it be for praiseworthy purposes.

Jan 6, 1922

By P. G. Shewmon, W. M. Robertson

The derivative of the surface tension with orientation, ??/??, for copper has been measured over the entire unit triangle. This derivative or torque term was determined from the variation of the dihedral angles at the intersection of twin boundaries and free surfaces. High-temperature anneals in graphite with a hydrogen atmosphere gave torque terms of 0.097 at (111), 0.066 at (100), and 0.0257 at (110). A variation from -36oto +23oC in the dew Point of the H2 had no effect on these values, nor did a change from 99.98 to 99.999 pct Pure copper. The removal of graphite from the system decreased ??/?? slightly. Considering the surface near a low-index plane to be smooth except for occasional steps, the free-energy increment per cm of step is calculated, and it is shown that the observed variation of ??/?? is consistent with a random distribution of steps and an interaction energy between steps. Integration of ??/?? gave the relative values of y at (100), (110), and (111) as comPared to ymax: (Y111/Ymax) =0.974, (Y110/Ymax) =0.996, (y100/Ymax) = 0.983. The ratio of the surface tension of coherent twin boundaries to the surface tension of the free surface was found to be (yT/ys) = 0.027 * 0.011. In a crystalline solid the surface tension y (surface free energy per unit area) depends on the orientation of the surface relative to the crystallographic axes of the crystal. Measurements of this variation of y with surface orientation have been reported for metals only within the last few years. Consider the grain boundary groove shown in Fig. 1. Here the three surfaces are all normal to the plane of the paper, and each has a different surface tension, y1, y2, and y3. If the system is at equilibrium, the total surface free energy must remain unchanged for a slight vertical displacement of the intersection (points A, B, and C are kept fixed). As shown by Herring,' the following equation is obtained:

Jan 1, 1962

By John B. Myers

VERMICULITE is a name used to describe micaceous material that exfoliates when heated. It is hydrated magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate. The chemical composition, color, physical appearance, and degree of exfoliation vary. COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES, AND ORIGIN Vermiculite has the characteristic micaceous structure of basal cleavage and readily splits into thin laminae, which are soft, pliable, and inelastic. The monoclinic crystal faces are often marked by triangular lines at 60° and 120°. Hardness is 1.5; specific gravity, 2.2-2.7; luster pearly to greasy; colors, amber, bronze, reddish brown, dark green, and black. Feel is soapy, particularly when wet. When heated it exfoliates by expanding at right angles to the cleavage into long wormlike pieces (the name vermiculite is from the Latin veamiculari, to breed worms). This important characteristic of expansion is believed to be a mechanical separation of the layers when the contained water is converted into steam. Warping of the unit layers may also contribute to the expansion. The increase in bulk volume of commercially prepared material is 8 to 12 times but individual flakes may increase in size more than this. Pure vermiculite is a distinct mineral and has the structural formula (OH), (Mg,Fe)3 (Si,Al,Fe)4 010.4H20. It rarely occurs in this pure form, but generally as a mixed mineral of varying structure. One explanation is that the mixed material is composed of unit layers of inter-stratified pure vermiculite and biotite. The essential difference between the two is that unit cell structure of vermiculite contains a layer of water molecules whereas the biotite cell contains potassium instead of the water. The water content of the mixed vermiculite is less than that of pure vermiculite but more than that of biotite. Pure biotite does not expand when heated. If the proportion of biotite layers in a vermiculite is too high it will adversely affect the degree of exfoliation. Within a given deposit, the great mass of material may approach a definite com-position with local areas of greater biotite content. It is not uncommon to find also small pockets of pure biotite but these are generally segre-

Jan 1, 1949

By Renato G. Bautista, Robert A. Hard

A comparative study has been made of the ex-tractability of several of the transitim metals from thiocyanate sohtions using methyl isobutyl ketone as the organic solvent. Extractions were made of scandium (III), chromium (III), manganese (II), iron (III), and cobalt (II), of which only the scandium , iron, and cobalt were readily extracted. All extractions were made at pH 2 and at 25.5 °C. A series of extraction experiments was made on scandium, iron, and cobalt to determine the effect of thiocyanate cmcentration added as the ammonium and also as the calcium salt. Also determined was the effect of metal ion concentratim and ionic strength on the distribution ratio. Analyses of the organic extracts indicated the scandium and iron were extracted principally in the uncharged trithiocyanate form, while the extractable form of the cobalt contained the cobaltotetrathiocyanate anion. THE chemical separation of metal complexes in solution by solvent extraction has in recent years been developed for large scale separation as well as bench scale work in the laboratory. It has also found increased application in analytical chemistry. Its extension to extractive metallurgy as a unit operation is best illustrated in the recovery of uranium and vanadium from their leached liquor.5-8 The extractability of some thiocyanate systems have been extensively investigated. The rate earths have been separated from one another using butanol as a olvent. Scandium was effectively extracted in ethyl ether using ammonium thiocyanate as the com-plexing agent.'' Similarly, the separation of hafnium from zirconium has been reported using ether""' or hexone13 as the organic solvent. The extractability of various metal thiocyanates in ethyl ether is given by 0ck.l Sharp and Wilkinson15 prepared nickel-free cobalt slats by thiocyanate extraction. The mechanism of extraction of titanium (IV) thiocyanate with methyl isobutyl ketone was determined by elafosse.''" The characterization of cobalt (TI) thiocyanate complex using methyl isobutyl ketone as the solvent at near neutral aqueous solution and the spectrometric studies of the ex-tractable cobalt complex has been made by Hard." It is noteworthy to mention at this point that the fundamental characteristic of ketone (oxonium) solvent extraction is that the extractable species are uncharged ion pairs solvated by the ketone molecules, but probably still partially hydrated.

Jan 1, 1963

By H. T. Morris

ONE of the chief concerns of the Bethlehem Steel Co. naturally is the proper functioning of its organization. This involves the training of a continuous supply of younger men to fill the vacancies caused not only by the inevitable departure of older men, but also by the growth of existing establishment, and by expansion in new directions. It does not oper-ate a student training course with a fixed time schedule or with definite periods of rotation through the differ-ent divisions. To state the case positively, the gradu-ate's training course must operate continuously from the beginning of his employment through a long term of years. No period of weeks or months nor pair of years suffice to bring him into contact with all the com-binations needed to qualify him for the larger destiny toward which we hope he is headed. Our first step in selecting a college man is to require that he have a degree. We thus approximate the assur-ance that at least four annual siftings have reduced the chance that a non-worker may find himself in a job where work is necessary. The next step is to try to ascertain facts, from the graduate and from others who have known him at his home and in 'his college, to indi-cate whether our opportunities offer him a career that will challenge his continuing interest, and hold him to tenacious effort against all happenings. We aim to avoid knowingly bringing into our organization a man who will not develop in it enough enthusiasm to keep him happily striving. Having made our selections, we assemble the gradu-ates into a probationary observation circuit. We-put ourselves under their observation by taking them in small groups, usually of two to four men, on a circuit of every part of the Bethlehem plant, in which every manufacturing principle of our steel business is ex-emplified. The probationers work at something from day to day, with their hands if it can be arranged; otherwise in questioning, examining, and note-taking. Their observations include talks with superintendents, foremen, and workmen, the conditions under which workmen labor, apparatus, machinery, methods, design and operation of plant.

Jan 7, 1928

By Harry Klemic

Zirconium and hafnium minerals are used industrially both as minerals valuable for their chemical and physical characteristics and as ores of zirconium and hafnium. The principal zirconium-hafnium-bearing minerals, their composition, and their ranges in content of zirconium and hafnium dioxides are listed in Table 1. The supply of zirconium and hafnium is based almost entirely upon the supply of the minerals zircon and baddeleyite. Eudialyte may eventually also be of importance as a source of these elements. Zircon, which generally contains nearly 49% zirconium and between 0.4 and 1.5% hafnium, is the principal industrial mineral of this group. Baddeleyite, a commercially important but less abundant mineral, contains as much as 73% zirconium and 0.4 to 1.7% hafnium. Eudialyte has a wide range in content of these elements, but analyses of material from several localities indicate values of 6 to 11 % zirconium and 0.07 to 0.4% hafnium. Zircon is a mineral consisting principally of zirconium, silicon, and oxygen that crystallizes from magmas during the formation of igneous rocks. Zircon also occurs in veins and in metamorphic rocks. It is in the tetragonal crystal system. It commonly forms as small well-developed prisms having pyramidal terminations but also occurs as irregular-shaped grains. Zircon has a hardness of 7.5 on the Mohs' scale. Its specific gravity is commonly between 4.68 and 4.70 (Dana, 1932), but the specific gravity varies somewhat depending upon com- position and state of alteration. Zircon has no good cleavage directions and is brittle, breaking with a conchoidal fracture. Zircon of the composition ZrSiO, would contain 67.2% Zr02 and 32.8% SiO2. However, in addition to about 1 % of hafnium, minor amounts of thorium, uranium, rare earth elements, yttrium, calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminum, phosphorus, and hydrogen, and trace amounts of other elements are commonly present in the mineral (Frondel, 1957). Radiogenic lead and other daughter products from the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium also accrue in the mineral. Radiation damage to the structure of zircons that contain appreciable amounts of uranium and thorium may alter the internal structure of the crystals to

Jan 1, 1975

By H. E. Ellis, O. L. Patterson, Granville Dutton

A large-scale water-injection program for the Holt Bryant reservoir of the Delhi field has been established by means of the new automatic multi-pool analyzer. The objectives of this program were to increase reservoir pressure and eliminate a cross-dip gradient of 200 psi. Pressure increases during the first 15 months of operation have allowed for increased oil production rates of 2,600 BID or 25 per cent. To determine the required water injection it was necessary to predict natural water influx ram. Elimination of the pressure gradients required the water-injection program to account for the fluid migration and pressure interaction between segments of the reservoir. An integral part of the ana1ysis included the determination of in-place volumes of oil and gas. The operation of the automatic multi-pool analyzer in determining the water-injection program is described. New features of the analyzer inc1ude an automatic maferial balance analog and a leart-squares computer for determination of unknown reservoir properties. Operational procedures are sufficiently simple to allow direct use by reservoir engineers on a routine basis. The rapidity and accuracy with which problems may be solved permit repeated ana1yses as a check upon reservoir performance. INTRODUCTION This paper describes the use of a new analog com- puter in determining the optimum injection program for a complex reservoir. The Holt-Bryant (Fig. 1) is the major reservoir in the Delhi field of Louisiana. Production is from the Tuscaloosa at subsea depths of 2,970 to 3,286 ft. The sand dips to the south and southwest from three to five degrees. The reservoir is approximately 12 miles long and varies in width from 1/2 to 2 miles. Various calculations have placed the initial volume of oil in-place in the wide range of 275 to 355 million STB. Two small gas caps were initially present in the reservoir. The Holt-Bryant reservoir was discovered in Dec.. 1944, and was fully developed with 188 producing wells by 1948. After development was completed, an east-west pressure gradient began to establish itself. This

Jan 1, 1957

By Benjamin C. Craft

Oil and gas development in Louisiana during 1935 brought this state at the close of the year up to fourth place in the nation as a producing area. A review of development in North Louisiana centers around Rodessa, the most important reserve discovered in this area in many years. While the producing limits have not been defined, this discovery is one of the major developments of the year. New gas fields were discovered in Lincoln, De Soto and Bossier parishes. The Lincoln Parish discovery, completed flowing a highly saturated gas from the Glen Rose, further indicates the importance of deep-seated prospects in the interior salt-dome area. Minor extensions were made at Sligo and Pine Island. During the year, 126 oil wells and 103 gas wells were completed in North Louisiana as compared with 144 oil wells and 68 gas wells during 1934. The North Louisiana oil production was 9,617,405 bbl. as com-pared with 9,274,050 bbl. during 1934, an increase of 343,355 bbl., while the gas production increased 18 billion cu. ft. in 1935 over its 1934 figure. The Louisiana Department of Conservation gage of Nov. 1, 1935, shows an open-flow capacity of 4,563,725,000 cu. ft. per day from 941 wells in the Monroe field and 682,770,000 cu. ft. from 159 wells in the Rich-land field. A great deal of leasing continues in North Louisiana as a result of the Lincoln Parish discovery and development in the Rodessa field, especially in Bossier, De Soto, Winn, Lincoln, Bienville, Webster, Ouachita and Richland parishes. South Louisiana's position as an area of important reserves was further proved during the past year. Increased drilling resulted in the discovery of seven new fields: Lafitte, Garden Island Bay, Tepetate, Bunkie, St. Martinsville, Jeanerette and Big Lake. New sands or producing horizons proved productive in 15 of the proven fields. The total oil production for South Louisiana during 1935 was 40,731,-056 bbl. as compared with 23,255,437 bbl. during 1934. There were 222 oil and gas wells completed in South Louisiana during 1935 as compared with 214 oil wells during the previous period. Drilling during

Jan 1, 1936

By Benjamin C. Craft

Oil and gas development in Louisiana during 1935 brought this state at the close of the year up to fourth place in the nation as a producing area. A review of development in North Louisiana centers around Rodessa, the most important reserve discovered in this area in many years. While the producing limits have not been defined, this discovery is one of the major developments of the year. New gas fields were discovered in Lincoln, De Soto and Bossier parishes. The Lincoln Parish discovery, completed flowing a highly saturated gas from the Glen Rose, further indicates the importance of deep-seated prospects in the interior salt-dome area. Minor extensions were made at Sligo and Pine Island. During the year, 126 oil wells and 103 gas wells were completed in North Louisiana as compared with 144 oil wells and 68 gas wells during 1934. The North Louisiana oil production was 9,617,405 bbl. as com-pared with 9,274,050 bbl. during 1934, an increase of 343,355 bbl., while the gas production increased 18 billion cu. ft. in 1935 over its 1934 figure. The Louisiana Department of Conservation gage of Nov. 1, 1935, shows an open-flow capacity of 4,563,725,000 cu. ft. per day from 941 wells in the Monroe field and 682,770,000 cu. ft. from 159 wells in the Rich-land field. A great deal of leasing continues in North Louisiana as a result of the Lincoln Parish discovery and development in the Rodessa field, especially in Bossier, De Soto, Winn, Lincoln, Bienville, Webster, Ouachita and Richland parishes. South Louisiana's position as an area of important reserves was further proved during the past year. Increased drilling resulted in the discovery of seven new fields: Lafitte, Garden Island Bay, Tepetate, Bunkie, St. Martinsville, Jeanerette and Big Lake. New sands or producing horizons proved productive in 15 of the proven fields. The total oil production for South Louisiana during 1935 was 40,731,-056 bbl. as compared with 23,255,437 bbl. during 1934. There were 222 oil and gas wells completed in South Louisiana during 1935 as compared with 214 oil wells during the previous period. Drilling during

Jan 1, 1936

By Leroy U. Gardner

EVERY reader of this paper is well aware of the fact that the prolonged inhalation of large amounts of free silica dust results in fibrosis of the lungs, and that other inorganic dusts, except those of asbestos and the mineral poisons, are thought to be relatively harmless. But probably few have had opportunity to visualize the effects of silica, asbestos and other minerals upon living tissues. The ideal demonstration would be based upon sections of lungs from human beings that had inhaled com- parable concentrations of different dusts for a unit period of time. Such material is generally difficult to obtain and in some instances is of questionable value because the subject has been exposed to more than one kind of dust. A demonstration could be prepared from the lungs of animals. However, so many months or even years are required to complete the exposure to each kind of dust that enough material has not been accumulated. For a general survey of the action of different types of dust, I am therefore compelled to use the tissues of animals that have been injected with suspensions of dust particles. The injection method offers certain advantages. The quantity, the particle size and the state of dispersion can be controlled with sufficient accuracy so that the tissue responses to different minerals can be accurately compared. The method insures contact between the tissues and the mineral particles; protective mechanisms, which may prevent the inhalation of certain types of foreign body, never come into play. If the pathway of injection be one that minimizes nonspecific injury, the tissue responses may simulate those produced by inhalation but they develop somewhat more rapidly. It should always be remembered that injection methods merely demonstrate the capacity of various kinds of minerals to provoke reaction in the tissues; whether the same substances are inhaled from atmospheric suspension and accumulate in the lungs in dangerous quantities can be demonstrated only by inhalation. The reactions that I shall discuss first took place not in the lungs but in the liver. For the purpose in hand this is quite immaterial for we are merely seeking to discover whether these minerals are capable of produc-

Jan 1, 1938

By L. C. Uren

Field studies and laboratory research have established the fact that the expulsive force which drives petroleum into wells, from the reservoir sands in which it is stored by nature, is primarly an expression of the energy latent within compressed natural gas dissolved or occluded in, or otherwise associated with the oil. Each barrel of oil produced is forced into the recovery well by the expansive energy of a certain volume of compressed gas, originally stored with the oil in the pores of the reservoir rock; and each cubic foot of gas so produced with the oil and expanded to atmospheric pressure reduces by so much the total natural energy available for oil expulsion. This relationship between the volumes of gas and oil produced has seemed so important that petroleum production technolo-gists have come to regard the "gas-oil ratio," or the "gas factor" as it has been more conveniently termed, as a measure of oil-production efficiency. Different methods of oil recovery and production devices are now Com pared on this basis and estimates of ultimate recovery obtainable through their use are considered by many to be inversely proportional to the values of their respective gas factors. The writer has been among those who have given support to a widcspread movement toward a proper recognition of the significance of the gas factor as a guide in the control of producing oil wells, and does not wish to oppose its more extended application. It seems necessary, how-cvcr, in view of the almost elemental faith with which the principle of the gas factor has been received in many quarters, to point out that it is a most complex factor, and one which cannot be regarded as an absolute index of production efficiency without due regard to other contributing factors by which it is influenced to an important degree. Variables Influencing Gas Factor The mere recording of a low gas factor, obtained through the use of some method or device, does not necessarily imply efficient oil production; and conversely, a high gas factor does not always signify inefficient recov-

Jan 1, 1928

By R. H. Card

THE geophysicist is interested greatly in the resistivities of different formations or parts of the earth's crust; sometimes he is interested in a single figure in the nature of an average, or what may be called the effec-tive resistivity, of all the formations or parts of the crust at a given location to a certain depth. Conversely, the engineer whose work is concerned with the coordination of power and communication lines in such a manner as to avoid electrical interference between these two types of facilities is concerned very much with this effective resistivity; to a lesser extent he is interested in the resistivities of individual forma-tions. In connection with his work the coordination engineer often estimates the effective resistivity; of the earth from measurements of the mutual impedances of lines; in other instances he derives front measure-ments of a different type the resistivities of different layers of the crust and synthesizes these to obtain an estimate of the effective resistivity. In connection with problems concerning the coordination of power and telephone lines, measurements from which earth resistivities can be estimated have been made at many points in the United States by the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. and its associated companies, in cooperation with various power companies and with railroad companies having electrified sections of line. Other such measurements have been made by the Joint Subcommittee on Development and Research of the Edison Electric Institute and the Bell Telephone System. A study has been made of the correlation of these data with the ages and types of materials of the strata of the earth's crust at each of the test locations. The purpose of this study has been primarily to provide information to assist in predicting the order of magnitude of effective resistivities to be used in the preliminary consideration of problems con-cerned with the coordination of power and communication lines. To make the results of such a study, most useful, it is essential that the geo-logical data to be secured when such a prediction is wanted be readily obtainable. Data on the ages of strata and the types of materials com-posing geological structures can usually be obtained, therefore particu-

Jan 1, 1937

By Henry Fernald

THE accounting system or bookkeeping methods of any company are principally the concern of that company and of those who are in control of its affairs. Its published financial report is, however, primarily intended for those who are not already fully informed regarding its operations and finances. Whatever may be the advantages of standardization of accounting and bookkeeping methods, it must be admitted that a company has a certain right to handle its accounts and keep its books and records in whatever manner may seem to it best adapted to its affairs, even though such methods may differ materially from those generally adopted by others. In its financial reports it should not, however, either ask or expect that the statements it makes or the terms which it uses will be given in its case a meaning and interpretation different from that which they are ordinarily considered to have in similar reports and statements of other companies. The particular form and arrangement of such reports is a matter concerning which there may be much difference of opinion. It is of little importance whether current assets come first or last in the Balance Sheet, but it is important that there should not be included under this designation any items which are not properly current assets within the generally accepted meaning of that term. The extent to which stockholders or others interested are to be made acquainted with the full details of a company's business is a question which the proper authorities must in each case decide. It should, however, be recognized that there are certain facts regarding a mining com-pany which must be set forth in a financial statement if it is fully to cover the conditions and affairs of the company. For example, a financial, statement which does not include or is not accompanied by a statement, of the ore reserves of the company does not fully set forth its financial condition. This is true whether the absence of such a statement of ore reserves is because it is not desired to make public the figures or whether it is because the ore reserves themselves are not definitely known, or accurately measured.

Jan 1, 1928

By C. A. Stetefeldt

Metallurgical processes cannot be conducted successfully With out the aid of analytical chemistry. The great perfection of Iead smelting in the West, for instance, has only been accomplished by the analysis of ores, fluxes, slags and all products of the furnace. Ores are mixed and fluxed to obtain a slag of desired composition. Account is even taken of the composition of the ashes obtained from the coke. The " muscular " smelter has left the field forever! This state of affairs has been induced by sharp competition, i.e., by a com plete separation of the industries of mining and reducing ores, not by the liberality and wisdom of directors and stockholders to pro vide laboratories and engage chemists, or by their love for scientific investigation. It would be considered absurd, at present, to run a lead-smelter, a blast-furnace for pig-iron, or a Bessemer plant without the assist ance of a well-equipped laboratory and a chemist; but it is con sidered quite sufficient to provide amalgamation- or lixiviation works merely with a crude assay-office, and an assayer who is paid less than a laborer in the mill. In my opinion, this will change in the near future. By the ex clusion of Mexican lead-ores, and their growiring scarcity in the West, smelters have been forced to raise their charges on so-called dry silver-ores, and cannot handle the latter now in such unlimited quantities as formerly. The inevitable result must be that the sur plus of these dry silver-ores, especially those of low grade, will be reduced by processes cheaper than smelbing; and here the introduc tion of lixiviation has an excellent field, provided the muscular lixiviator has an able chemist for an assistant. It is to be regretted that so little analytical work has been done in lixiviation. We know almost nothing of the composition of roasted ores before and after lixiviation; of the constitution of the first wash water and of lixiviation-solutions after prolonged use; of the chemistry of sodium and calcium sulphides; of the col-hposition

Jan 1, 1892

By G. A. Merkt

THE Isley furnace control, here presented as a novelty in furnace construction, is, in principle, one of the oldest methods of maintaining furnace heat for industrial purposes. Records unearthed in Egyptian tombs and the primitive methods of melting metal practiced by African tribes today indicate that fanning the fire and forcing the furnace by bellows have been an effective means of regulating heat for man's work during thousands of years. Even today, these cruder forms of mechanical draft production are still nn use within the borders of this most highly developed industrial land. Stacks, as we know them, are of com- paratively recent historical age but their attractive simplicity and seeming effectiveness have made them exceedingly popular. And so we find one of the most important types of furnace the world has even known, the open-hearth furnace, duly and more or less properly equipped with a chimney. The regenerative, or reversing, type of furnace, how-ever, required another mechanism between its hearth and the stack to provide a means for alternately con-necting one side and the other of its system of regen-erative chambers and flues to the stack and to a source of fuel and air supply respectively. Various types of reversing valves were developed, some of which are re-markably well designed for maximum efficiency and ease of installation as well as operation. However, this combination has a number of inherent faults which are so difficult to correct as to make efforts in the direction of improving over-all efficiency almost futile. These inherent difficulties are as follows: (1) The necessarily high temperature at which the gases must be delivered to the stack in order to make it operative. (2) The great temperature difference incidental to the reversal of flue gas and air and consequently the large variation in preheated air and fuel delivered to the furnace dur-ing the cycle. (3) The leakages and resistances created by the reversing apparatus and the complicated flues necessary. (4) The inadequate range of control af-forded by the natural draft system, especially under adverse atmospheric conditions.

Jan 12, 1927

By M. C. Udy, P. C. Rosenthal

THE use of minute boron additions to steel has been given considerable attention in recent years. Comparisons made between boron-free and boron-containing heats of otherwise identical analysis have indicated, beyond a doubt, the potent effect of boron for increasing hardenability. The actual hardenability increase has been expressed as a multiplying factor, or in terms of the percentage of other alloying elements boron might replace, The present study presents the results of a systematic survey of. the use of boron as an addition to two types of alloyed steels and as a replacement for various percentages of molybdenum in these steels, Both cast and wrought steels of the two basic compositions were prepared. Molybdenum, because of its scarcity at the time the investigation was started, was selected as the element to be replaced by boron. Attention was also given to the effects of boron on other properties of the steels, particularly their notched-bar toughness, to investigate other advantages or limitations of this element as an alloy addition. EXPERIMENTAL WORK Steels Investigated The two basic compositions used in this survey of boron as a replacement for molybdenum are given in Table I. The cast steels were higher than the wrought steels in silicon content to improve the casting quality. [ ] Each of these base steels, both cast and wrought, was made with molybdenum contents of o, 0.10, 0.20, 0.30, or 0.40 per cent, the total comprising 20 steels. In addition, each of these 20 compositions . was prepared with boron additions in amounts of 0.0015, 0.003, and o,006 per cent as ferroboron; and in amounts of 0.002 and 0.005 per cent as two com¬mercial intensifier alloys, designated alloys A and B. The boron-treated steels totaled 100, and the entire series 120, Test Procedure Each steel was melted as an individual heat in a 50-lb., magnesia-lined induction furnace. Ingot iron scrap or mixtures of ingot iron and steel scrap were used for melting stock. Deoxidation was carried out in the furnace with o.10 per cent aluminum. The aluminum addition was

Jan 1, 1946

By Martin Rubenstein

CdS crystals have been grown from a number of metallic solvents such as bismuth, tin, lead, and cadmium. Etching studies have shown that plastic deformation occurs if the crystals are not removed from the solvent prior to the solidification of the solvent, on cooling. The deformed crystals show a umique exciton fluorescence as a function of edge dislocation density. If one grows the CdS in the eutectic alloy of the above four metals (commonly called Wood's metal) the crystals can be removed from the solvent with hot water and no plastic deformation occurs. In this paper, the liquidus solubility measurements of CdS, as a function of temperature, are presented. The data were obtained using a high -temperature filtration technique. CADMIUM-SULFIDE crystals have been grown from a number of metallic solvents1 such as cadmium, bismuth, tin, and lead. Liquidus solubilities of CdS in cadmium,2 bismuth,3 and tin4 have already been measured. Crystals of CdS, in all four metals, have been grown by solution growth: 1) by cooling a saturated solution and 2) by a solution transport method.1'"1 CdS crystals grown in these four solvents have a few characteristics in common: 1) 1.8°K photolumines-cent emission consisted mainly of the radiative recombination of the bound exciton commonly known as I,, 2) slip lines which could easily be seen by the naked eye, and 3) edge dislocation densities in the order of l05 per cu cm.1 It was decided that these slip lines and the high edge dislocation densities were caused by a plastic deformation of the CdS crystals. It was felt that this plastic deformation did not occur during the growth of the crystals nor during the cooling of the solution, but did occur when the solvent which was in contact with the crystals froze. If these assumptions were valid, the slip lines and the high number of dislocations could be reduced or eliminated by removing the crystals from the solvent before the solvent froze. Since crystals of CdS had already been grown separately in such solvents as bismuth, lead, tin, and cadmium, it was felt that crystals could be grown in a eutectic mixture of these four metals. In this work a eutectic (or near eutectic) mixture of bismuth, lead, tin and cadmium in the proportion 50, 26.5, 13.5, and 10 wt pct, respectively, was used to grow CdS crystals. Such a mixture has a melting point of about 70°C and is close in composition to the alloy commonly known as Wood's metals. If the crystals could be grown from this mixture of solvents, and if hot water (>75°C) could be used to separate the crystals of CdS from the metallic solvent, it was hoped that CdS crystals could be grown with little or no plastic deformation which had been ob- served when crystals were grown from these solvents uncombined. CdS crystals were grown from this low melting eutectic mixture of bismuth, lead, tin, and cadmium using the solvent transport method. CdS powder and the appropriate amount of metals were sealed in a quartz tube under a pressure of about 5 X 10-6 torr. This ampule was then placed in a vertical position in a furnace. The temperature was raised to about 900°C. The furnace was designed so that the top of the liquid column within the ampule was between 10° to 40°C higher than the bottom of the liquid column. These temperatures were measured on the outside of the quartz ampule. The ampule was maintained at temperature for 7 to 14 days (depending on the temperature at which transport was taking place) and then the furnace temperature was lowered until the temperature was about 125°C. The ampule was then removed from the furnace, placed in water maintained at about 90°C, and opened in this 90°C environment. The crystals could then be removed from this two-phase liquid (Wood's metal and water) by mechanically picking them out. Alternatively, the crystals could be quantitatively removed by adding an excess of mercury to the mixture of metals, crystals, and hot water. The hot solution of metals and the hot water could be evacuated using a small diameter tube connected to a vacuum. Small amounts of mercury and water could be removed by heating the crystals in vacuum. Crystals prepared using this technique showed no evidence of slip. However, some of these crystals did show edge dislocation densities as high as l04 per cu cm. Some few selected crystals showed no dislocations. Single crystals of CdS were grown as large as 5 by 5 by 0.5 mm. The ampules for the growth of these crystals were 13 mm O.D., 11 mm I.D., 150 mm! LIQUIDUS SOLUBILITY MEASUREMENTS The CdS starting materials was G.E. 118-8-2 powder which was fired in H2S at 1000°C, and then a vapor transport technique5 was applied to produce a "sound" mass of CdS. The Wood's metal was prepared by weighing out bismuth, lead, tin, and cadmium in the proportions of 50, 26.5, 13.5, and 10 wt pct, respectively. The bismuth, cadmium, and lead were from the American Smelting and Refining Co. (ASARCO) and all had purities of 99.999+ pct. The tin was 99.9999 pct spectroscopic grade from the Vulcan Materials Co. The appropriate mixture was placed in a quartz tube, evacuated to a pressure of 5 X 10-6 torr, melted to a liquid, cooled to room temperature under this same vacuum. This ingot was then placed in another quartz tube, evacuated to 5 x l0-6 torr, and sealed off under vacuum. The ampule was then horizontally placed in a furnace. The temperature was raised to 600°C, and over a period of several hours the ampule was vigorously shaken several times. The ampule was then removed from the furnace, and the metallic liquid was

Jan 1, 1970

By G. S. Hume

Production of petroleum and natural .gas increased in Canada in 1940 over the previous year. Alberta produced more than 97 per cent of the total Canadian production of 8,718,053 bbl. of oil, an increase for this province of nearly 12 per cent, whereas in Ontario and New Brunswick, where the production is relatively small, there was a slight decline. In Alberta the main producing field is Turner Valley, on the eastern edge of the foothills southwest of Calgary, and development continued in this field in 1940 with the completion of 36 wells, all of which obtained production. In the Red Coulce field, close to the International Boundary, near Coutts, no new wells were drilled and the seven producing wells showed a decline of 900 bbl. below the previous year. Also, in the Wainwright field of east central Alberta, four wells, yielding heavy crude oil, produced 4000 bbl. less oil than in 1939, owing possibly rather to discontinuous operation than to actual decline in potential yield. This decline was more than offset by production from a new field 40 miles northeast of Wainwright, at Borradaile, producing oil of 14" to I 5° A.P.1. There was a small increase in production during 1940 from the Del Bonita field, in southern Alberta, where the production is from two wells. The outstanding development of the year was the completion of Standard Oil Princess No. 2 well in the Steveville area, on the Plains 100 miles east of Calgary. This well was completed late in December with an initial flow1 of 520 bbl. of 26.3" A.P,I. oil, and 12,750 M cu. ft. of gas from the upper part of the Mississippian limestone. It has opened up a new field and given a further proof of the potentialities of the Southern Plains. The production of petroleum in Canada is shown in Table I. Since most of the yield comes from Alberta, the production is shown from the various fields in Table 2. The sale value of the petroleum produced in Canada in 1940 exceeded 11.1 million dollars, which is still somewhat less than the value of the natural gas production, shown in Table 3. Table i.—Production of Petroleum in Canada" Barrels Province 1939 1940 New Brunswick........ 20,101 21,161 Ontario............... 206,196 186,471 Alberta............... 7,595,000 8,493,237 Northwest Territories. . 17,013 8,493,23717.184 Total............... 7,838,310 8,718,053 Value............... $10,353,351 $11.113,000 0 Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa. Turner Valley, Alberta Turner Valley continues to be by far the largest producing field in Canada (details are given in Table 4), The limits of the Pr in- field are now Known. On the east the oil area is bounded by the gas cap, which in turn is cut off on its east side by a major overthrust fault; on the west, ii is defined by edge water at a level of 4roc

Jan 1, 1941

By E. R. Johnson

The copper concentrator of the Braden Copper Co. is at Sewell, Chile, on the westem flank of the main Cordillera of the Andes, at an air distance of approximately 50 miles southeast of Santiago, the capital of Chile. The region is mountainous and space is at a premium because of the rough terrain and the danger of snowslides. The ore, a porphyry copper, is mined by a block-caving method in the El Teniente mine. It is hauled to the crushing plant, a distance of 2.6 miles, through a tunnel because of the severe climatic conditions. The usual large, coarsely set, primary reduction machines found in many ore-treating plants are not required because of the mining method employed and the limiting 12-in. spacing of the grizzlies at the head of each ore pass in the mine. It is the purpose of this paper to describe the numerous improvements made in the crushing section of this large flotation concentrator during the past I5 years to increase the efficiency of the plant and to raise the daily output from around 20,000 to 30,000 tons. The reader should keep in mind that all changes were made within the existing building because of the limited space and the high cost of the heavy mill construction required to withstand the snow loads. The present plant, as well as the former, operates on a 24-hr, 7 days a week basis. The crushing plant commenced operations at its present site in 1921, the main equipment being No. 7½ gyratories, followed by 48-in. horizontal Symons disk crushers. Fines were removed by I-in. stationary grizzlies ahead of each unit. In 1924 a third stage of crushing was provided by the addition of 55½-in. rolls in open circuit. During 1925, the Symons disks were replaced by 73½-in. rolls. All the rolls were changed to closed circuit, with elevators and screens to give a final product of 9 pct plus 3-mesh. The flowsheet of a typical crushing section of this period is shown in Fig I. The ore was withdrawn from a common bill serving the five crushing sections in the plant by means of any number up to six 36-in. wide-apron feeders, which discharged onto a common conveyor belt. This conveyor was equipped with a magnetic head pulley and the crusher attendant was stationed near the discharge end to pick out pieces of mine timber that might be in the ore. The ore was discharged over a 13/4-in. spaced bar grizzly and the oversize of this grizzly was crushed by a No. 7½ McCully gyratory crusher set at 13/4-in. opening on the closed side. The grizzly undersize joined the gyratory discharge and was conveyed to a set of 73½ by 20-in. Garfield rolls set at I in. These rolls operated in closed circuit with a bucket elevator and two vibrating screens placed in parallel.

Jan 1, 1949

By B. W. Dyer

In 1924, the Crescent Eagle Oil Co., while drilling the salt section of the Paradox formation in Grand County, Utah, encountered a salt that did not appear to be sodium chloride. This salt was analyzed and showed the presence of potash minerals, both sylvite (KCl) and carnallite (KMgC12.6H2O). Because of the high potash content of the sample, there was considerable speculation: (I) as to whether the hole had been salted, and (2), if not, the extent, richness, and the depth at which the deposit occurred. The discovery caused a large amount of activity in the area. During the next few years, 68 potash prospecting permits were issued by the Government, 24 under the Act of 1917 and 44 under the Act of Feb. 7, 1927, each including about four sections of land. Several holes, all shallow, were drilled for potash. A number of holes were drilled for oil into the salt horizon and the cuttings collected at the oil wells were examined petrographically and chemically. The shallow test holes were not sufficiently deep to reach the potash horizon and revealed nothing of value, but several of the oil test holes gave some indication of where potash might be found. Location and Geology of Deposits The potassium and magnesium salts have been found in various places from the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad tracks about seven miles west of Thompsons, in eastern Utah, to Cane Creek, a tributary of the Colorado River— a distance north and south of about 35 miles. In this locality, there appear to be five separate deposits: the Crescent Eagle area, which is in T. 22 S., R. 19 E.; the Salt Valley area, in the vicinity of the north-south line of T. 23 S., between R. 20 E. and R. 21 E.; the Seven Mile area, in the eastern part of T. 25 S., R. 20 E.; the Cane Creek area, on the Colorado River, in T. 26 S. and T. 27 S., R. 20 E. and R. 21 E.; and the Salt Wash area, in T. 22 S. and T. 23 S., R. 16 E. and R. 17 E. (Fig. I.) The Crescent Eagle and Salt Valley areas are in the Salt Valley anticline, some of the wells being in the fault graben and others outside. Structurally, the Salt Valley anticline is very complex, and can be described in general terms as a northwesterly plunging collapsed anticline about 15 miles long. In the Crescent Eagle area, the valley graben is about 1 1/2 mile wide and the salt probably forms a plug, the apex of which is in the vicinity of the Crescent Eagle well. Owing to the complex structure, there has been every opportunity for flowage in the salt to cause local thinning or thickening of beds. The regular succession of formations in the general area* is: Cretaceous Mancos Dakota Jurassic Morrison Summerville Entrada Carmel

Jan 1, 1948