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Coal washing practice can be improved not only by critical examination of the plant being operated but also by studying plants operated in other areas. The developments at the Australian Iron & Steel Pty. Ltd. plants are discussed in relation to experiences there as well as developments which have taken place in Queensland in recent years. Early A.I.S. problems involved small coal cleaning in heavy medium cyclones and flotation. A proposed future plant flowsheet for A.I.S. is considered in the light of these experiences. Reference is made to plants operated by the Thiess, Peabody, Mitsui Coal Company Pty. Ltd. at Moura and the Utah Development Company's plants at Blackwater and Goonyella in the development of coal washing prac- tice in Australia.

Jan 1, 1975

The disadvantages of the present zinc producing methods, RLE and ISP, are high energy consumption and environmental problems. Therefore, efforts have been directed in Outokumpu Zinc towards the development of alternate routes. One interesting pyrometallurgical process to produce zinc is to inject zinc calcine together with a solid reductant into molten iron, saturated with carbon. This process has been studied by thermodynamic calculations, laboratory tests and mini-pilot test runs at Outokumpu Research Oy, Pori, Finland. The results of these tests are presented and discussed in this paper. The mini-pilot tests demonstrated that over 97 per cent evaporation of the zinc was possible using a reactive coal dust as the reducing agent. The recovery of zinc in the metal phase was at best 88 per cent of input zinc, but only part reported in molten lead in the splash condenser. The final metallic zinc contained at best 98 per cent Zn, the main impurities being dissolved lead and coal carried along with the flue dusts.

Jan 1, 1993

Commercial or potentially commercial deposits of coal occur in Australia in strata ranging in age from Permian to Tertiary. The coals of each period tend to show a community of petrographic character and significant differences as compared with coals of other ages. In particular- many of the Permian coals are unusually rich in inertinite whereas the Jurassic and Tertiary coals are typically very rich in vitrinite. The majority of the coals show evidence of deposition in environments subject to relatively minor marine influence. Except for some Tertiary and Permian coals the content of mineral matter tends to be high. Outcrops of coals of bituminous rank appear to be largely restricted to the eastern margin of the Australian continent. In this region vertical rank gradients are generally higher than in the other sedimentary basins and uplift and the removal of cover has occurred to a greater extent. To the west of the Tasman geosyncline, coal of bituminous rank generally occurs at considerable depths (usually in excess of 1 km and in some areas only at depths of over 2 kms), and in most areas coals at shallow depth are of sub-bituminous or brown coal rank. The controls of the distribution of coal type and rank have considerable economic significance and the unusual characteristics of Australian coals, especially with respect to coal type, make the direct application of overseas technology to Australian coals inappropriate.

Jan 1, 1975

By M Chiquito, R Castedo, P Segarra, L M. López, J A. Sanchidrián, J Navarro

The aim of this work is to assess the performance of different constructive solutions against explosions on the strength of masonry walls. The solutions tested, namely an external metal mesh, a glass fibre film on the external face of the wall and a basalt fibre film located on the inner face of the wall, have low to medium cost and are originally designed for other purposes, like seismic protection. Four cubic boxes 3 × 3 × 3 m were built using each of the solutions and typical masonry blocks. In the tests, a spherical plastic explosive initiated in the centre was placed at scaled distance of 2.9 m/kg1/3, so that moderate damage would be caused on the wall. In order to assess the performance of the explosive, pressure gauges were placed at the wall and at different distances from the explosion. Additionally, vibrations were monitored with seismographs in the far field and a high-speed camera was used to estimate the shock wave velocity during the tests. The resulting damage has been evaluated on 13 points of the external wall of each box using a rebound hammer. Damage maps have been drawn for each wall based on these measurements and damage has been assessed inside the box considering the fragments mass launched during the test. The use of external metal mess leads to a decrease of 34 per cent on damage of the external wall and 38 per cent reduction of spalling. The use of a film in the inner wall provides a strong reduction on spalling.CITATION:López, L M, Segarra, P, Castedo, R, Sanchidrián, J A, Navarro, J, Santos, A P and Chiquito, M, 2015. Performance of different constructive solutions against explosions in full-scale masonry walls, in Proceedings 11th International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, pp 819–824 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 24, 2015

By S D. Dessureault

The largest surface coal mine in North America requires complex materials handling infrastructure to fulfil the highly variable quality specifications of its contracts. These diverse demands, reflected in the arrival of numerous customer trains every day, necessitate the integration of information in every stage of production. To meet this goal, quality measurement, train line-up and mine planning processes are being integrated into local and remote control rooms. The effectiveness of such a system can only be measured by comparing decisions that are made with, and without, each of the individual integrated control systems. Traditionally, mine controllers use their experience, intuition or a variety of trial-and-error spreadsheets to determine the ideal materials handling flows needed to achieve the correct quality. These balanced decisions are complex since many factors must be considered such as the mine plan, fleet costs, quality variability and others; consequently mine controllers usually have widely varying success between crews.An evaluation model was developed to assess the impact of a decision support system (DSS) integrated in a control room for controlling the coal blending process. To this end, an ARENA-based simulator representing the whole production process can be used to pull performance and current materials handling settings directly either from the real-time systems in the mine, or from historical data. In this way, the same shift (breakdowns, cycle rates, etc) can be simulated and performance compared. Different settings of the DSS, in terms of what information is displayed and the methods for doing so, can be tested for effectiveness. The historical data are extracted directly from a corporate data warehouse, without altering the everyday working databases. At the same time, the simulator writes its results back into the same data warehouse structure, allowing the same KPI reports to be used to measure simulated shifts.

Sep 26, 2011

By S Hapugoda, M Peterson, A Haileslassie, A Poliakov, E Donskoi, L Lu

Most metallic iron in the world is produced in blast furnaces from different feed stocks – sinter, lump ore and pellets. Sinter is the main iron-containing feed to the blast furnace and can constitute up to 70–85 per cent of the total ferrous burden. As sinter quality is a key element for stable blast furnace operation, the textural, chemical and physical characteristics of the sinter are very important. Two major factors that affect sinter strength are mineralogy and porosity. This study utilised optical image analysis (OIA) to characterise sinter mineralogy, and the results were compared to those obtained by manual point counting under the optical microscope.Two major mineral characteristics of iron ore sinter are the presence of primary (unreacted) and secondary (derived from melt) hematite. Standard OIA, which is based on RGB thresholding, is not able to distinguish them as they have the same reflectivity; however, primary and secondary hematite in iron ore sinter have a different morphology. The CSIRO-developed OIA software Mineral4/Recognition4 has a unique feature to identify various textures/morphologies of the same mineral. Together with other capabilities of the Mineral4/Recognition4 software, this feature was used to identify different types of hematite and silico-ferrite of calcium and aluminium and other common sinter phases, such as magnetite, larnite, glass and remnant aluminosilicates.A visual comparison of the sinter mineralogy present in optical photomicrographs and that present in the mineral maps created automatically by the Mineral4 module of the CSIRO software confirmed the accuracy of the automated mineral identification.CITATION:Donskoi, E, Hapugoda, S, Lu, L, Poliakov, A, Peterson, M and Haileslassie, A, 2015. Advances in optical image analysis of iron ore sinter, in Proceedings Iron Ore 2015, pp 543–548 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 13, 2015

By S Sabanov

Supplementary sampling of particulate mass concentration, the number concentration and the average particle diameter of nanoparticles using a TSI Dust-Trak DRX Aerosol Monitor, Naneos Partector 2 has been conducted. The aim of this study was to evaluate suitability of the instrument for long-term monitoring of diesel particulate matter (DPM) at conditions of polymetallic mines. Sampling was conducted in an area of the active ore heading, requiring the use of a diesel-powered face haul-age loader R1700 and a mine truck Caterpillar AD-45. The sampling was done for 126 minutes at a distance of 30 metres from the mine face. Results of this field work can be used to expand the sampling program to other mines. Expected outcomes of this study are to develop costeffective DPM control strategies, improve mine ventilation, and protect mineworkers’ health.

Oct 12, 2022

By S Saydam

Professional engineers need to be able to apply university learning to practice. In particular, they have to take responsibility for interactions between technical systems and the complex social environments in which they operate. The most effective way of building this competency is through active experiential learning. We have been developing an advanced educational integrated simulation system to provide mining engineering students with an interactive and immersive learning experience that is not otherwise possible. This will give students an authentic experience in working with industry software packages, while also contextualising the learning in terms of the broader and longer-term impact of technical decisions. We have been piloting the system, in undergraduate courses in order to establish its effectiveness in building systems thinking competencies for mining engineering. For postgraduate students and professionals, the same tools and methods can support studies of more challenging and complex scenarios where mining engineers have to place their decisions within complex global industry contexts.

Nov 22, 2011

By Drinkwater DJ, Watsford RMS, Johnson NW, Munro PD

This paper describes the use of modelling and simulation techniques in the analysis and optimisation of grinding circuits at the Lead/Zinc Concentrator of Mount Isa Mines Limited.The objectives of the studies were to: -1. improve primary grinding circuit performance by reducing the production of -0.006 mm galena fines.2. maximise the fineness of grind in the second existing grinding power and pumping capacitie The study has shown that quantitative models can operations. The models described plant operation,,and simulated the effect of process changes on plant performanc The use of automated scanning electron microscope technology tcliberation characteristics of the major minerals in the Mount isa Lead/Li ore is also described.

Jan 1, 1985

By G W. Swana

Elastoplastic parameter is a parameter that describe how much materials behave elastically up to certain stress states and plastically thereafter (Hudson and Harrison, 1997). In the continuum analysis, two main parameters of the elastoplastic parameter are modulus elasticity and Poisson’s ratio. In the slope, elastoplastic parameter holds the main role for stability related to deformation in ductile type of rock. There’s a limitation to determine elastic or plastic deformation at the field for ductile rock type. Field manifestation commonly showed that there was no accumulation zone during and after the sliding failure mechanism, in other hand, at the research area, manifestation of deformation at the toe of slope only indicated by bulging shape. This paper will focus at the sliding failure occurred at Coal mining Pit Y owned by Arutmin Indonesia, which according to failure investigation report similar with the condition described above. This paper also will be based on two hypotheses, first hypothesis is claystone rock mass has not been reached plastic deformation yet and the second hypothesis is there is a chance that elastoplastic parameter of the rock mass has been changed during the deformation/sliding failure process. Research method of this paper are back analysis using probabilistic analysis in Finite Element Method (FEM), which conducted before and after failure. Then, the result of the displacement or deformation of the analysis will be checked with the actual deformation shape. Meanwhile, the change of the elastoplastic parameter will be analysed and interpreted. This paper hopefully able to be developed to study about elastoplastic behaviour of rock mass in actual condition and the influence of another uncertainty factor which determine the slope stability.

Nov 29, 2022

By A D. Pradana, D R. Pradana, Y H. Putra, Z Zulhan, T Hidayat

The high temperature processing of nickel laterite ore is currently dominated by the Rotary Kiln- Electric Furnace (RKEF) technology. The ratio of SiO2/MgO (S/M) in the ore is one of the critical parameters that determines the success of the RKEF process. Incompatible S/M ratios in the ore can cause aggressive chemical interaction between the slag and MgO refractory. The slag-refractory interaction at conditions relevant to nickel laterite ore smelting was investigated in the present study. Synthetic mixtures representing the slag compositions of nickel laterite ore smelting were prepared by mixing MgO, SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, and Fe and heating the mixtures in steel containers at 1300°C under an argon atmosphere for 3 hrs. Pure MgO crucible were used as containment material in the melting process of the mixtures to represent the MgO refractory. The kinetics of the slagrefractory reaction were investigated using samples with selected initial S/M ratios of 2.0 and 3.0 (wt/wt) (with constant CaO = 3 wt per cent, Al2O3 = 5 wt per cent, FeO = 10 wt per cent) by performing melting at 1500°C in MgO crucibles for 5, 30, and 120 mins under an argon atmosphere. The effect of the S/M ratio in slag on the slag-refractory interaction was also investigated by performing melting of mixtures with different initial S/M ratios of 1.75, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 (wt/wt) in MgO crucibles at 1500°C for 120 mins under an argon atmosphere. After the melting process, each sample was quenched in water, mounted in resin, ground, polished, and coated. The interaction between the slags and MgO refractory was then evaluated by analysing the polished samples using a scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). Thermodynamic simulations using FactSage™ 8.0 thermochemical software were performed based on the experimental slag compositions, refractory, and conditions to support the evaluation process. The results show that a higher S/M ratio in slag leads to a higher tendency for the refractory component to dissolve into the slag. A higher S/M ratio in slag also leads to an increasing extent of solid-state diffusion of iron oxide into the remaining refractory grains. The dissolution of MgO into the slag is rapid; the MgO concentration in the final slag increased by 2.4 wt per cent and 5.7 wt per cent at initial S/M ratios of 2.0 and 3.0 wt/wt, respectively, within 5 and 30 mins of the melting process.

Aug 21, 2024

By J Mukhopadhyay, J Gutzmer

Most world-class high-grade (60 - 67 wt per cent Fe) hematite iron ore deposits are the product of enrichment of Precambrian iron-formations but processes responsible for enrichment are still unclear. Different models, ranging from syngenetic and diagenetic (King, 1989), deep-seated hydrothermal (Powell et al, 1999; Barley et al, 1999; Taylor et al, 2001; Gutzmer et al, 2002) and ancient supergene (Morris, 1980; 1985; Van Schalkwyk and Beukes, 1986) to modern supergene (MacLeod, 1966) have been suggested. The high-grade hematite deposits stand in contrast to martiteûgoethite ores which are generally accepted to be the result of supergene enrichment of iron-formation because they are found along Cretaceous to Tertiary lateritic weathering profiles (Morris, 1980; Harmsworth et al, 1990). Uncertainties about the origin of the high-grade hematite ores appear largely due to the monomineralic composition of the ores. They are almost exclusively composed of hematite (as microcrystalline hematite and martite), a mineral with wide stability field and very simple chemical composition that reveals little about its origin. Second, many of the deposits have been overprinted by later deformation and chemical weathering obscuring primary ore characteristics and zonation (Taylor et al, 2001). Third, surprisingly few detailed geological studies have been undertaken on the deposits with the aim of unraveling ore genesis. Most studies focus on the present-day structure of orebodies and their general physical-chemical composition for mining and beneficiation purposes. A more thorough understanding of the origin of high-grade hematite iron ore deposits may be gained by combining available mining-orientated data with systematic petrographic-geochemical analyses of different ore generations and hematite phases. This paper presents a first summary of results of an ongoing study, started some two years ago, of high-grade iron ore deposits in South Africa, India and Brazil, including a comparison with the rather well studied deposits of the Hamersley Province in Australia.

Jan 1, 2002

By Miyatani J. Asaki Z, Kondo Y

The oxidation of sphalerite particles of 60 to 100 mesh size was studied in a fluidized bed of low 02 concentration at 900¦C. Par- tial pressure of 02 in the fluidizing 02-N2 gas mixture was chosen between 0.0009 and 0.02 atm. In the region of p02 between 0.008 and 0.02 atm, the oxidation rate was lowered with the decrease of p02, and the unreacted-core model was applied. At lower pbelow 0.008 atm, the reaction rate was enhanced as compared with the calcu- lated values from the unreacted-core model. From microscopic examination, it was found that ZnS was evaporated at the particle surface and the dissociated Zn vapor was oxidized in the gas phase. Initial reaction rate and the distance between the surface of inner sphaler- ite core and the oxide shell were studied based on the model of enhanced oxidation.

Jan 1, 1980

By E Villaescusa, C Drover

The stability of access tunnels is one of the main engineering challenges in deep underground mine construction. Many underground hard rock mining operations are now reaching depths where the induced stresses are such that sudden and violent failure of the excavations can occur very soon after construction. The loading conditions on the installed ground support schemes are often underestimated by conventional engineering design methods. Therefore, the actual loading conditions often exceed the installed ground support capacity. This can result in failure of the excavations and, in extreme cases, potentially closure of mining operations amounting to hundreds of millions of dollars in lost production. More frequently, violent excavation instability at great depth causes operational delays, costly and unplanned rehabilitation, as well as risks to worker safety. In order to address this challenge, this paper briefly summarises a modern, innovative approach to the design and construction of mine development at great depth. The process follows seven main steps. The first step is to characterise the rock mass strength, structure and stress. The second step is a stability assessment, which identifies the plausible modes of excavation failure, based on the rock mass characterisation. The third step is the definition of an excavation geometry which is harmonic to the high stress conditions. The fourth step is to prepare a site-specific face destressing drill and blast design which will reduce the potential for rock mass instability during the development construction cycle. The fifth step is to accurately quantify the expected loading conditions on the installed ground support. The method of doing so is uniquely analytical and probabilistic. It is based on the natural mechanical relationships between rock strength, structure, induced stress and the physical characteristics of the instability, including its mass and ejection velocity. The sixth step of the design process is to specify a ground support scheme arrangement with sufficient strength and displacement capacity to exceed the rock mass demand by a safe margin. The final stage is to install the complete ground support scheme using mechanised technologies which minimise the exposure of the equipment operators to unsupported ground at the tunnel face.

Nov 29, 2022

By C Slaughter, J C. Tien

Commonly held ideas about effective training have long emphasised the importance of realism. Realistic training builds better experience among the trainees and a better perspective on the training material, making training more effective. While great strides have been made in this realm for mine safety and mine rescue training there are still areas that can be improved. One possible area is the expanded use of a mine fire simulation program where the migration of gases and smoke can be realistically displayed in an emergency, and outcomes varied as different conditions are being simulated. The use of mine fire simulation software potentially allows for the creation of more realistic scenarios in that smoke advance rates can be measured and recreated in evacuation scenarios, or that gas readings in mine rescue training can be dynamically and realistically changed to show the effect that time has on the fire scenario.CITATION:Slaughter, C and Tien, J C, 2015. The potential use of mine fire simulation software as an enhancement for mine safety and mine rescue training, in Proceedings The Australian Mine Ventilation Conference, pp 285–290 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 31, 2015

By J Mauk, J Rowland

The Karangahake epithermal Au-Ag mine consists of two main lodes, the Maria and the Welcome/Crown hosted in Miocene andesites. Mineralisation is strongly constrained to major structures and is genetically linked to dynamic tectonic processes. Two main periods of faulting are represented in the deposit: 1. NE striking right-lateral/normal oblique linked spatially and temporally with the mineralising system, and 2. ESE striking right-lateral/normal oblique post-mineral faulting that displaces the lodes. Paleostress analyses performed on a limited kinematic data set indicate NW-SE extension during the formation of the vein system. Veins and lodes strike NNNE and accordingly contain a strike-slip component. The kinematics of vein formation at Karangahake is broadly consistent with that of other deposits within a NNE-trending belt of deposits. Oblique shear on deflecting structures will create zones of compression and dilation. Dilatant zones created on steep structures create fluid pathways potentially focussing large volumes of fluid from deep parts of the system into dynamic structures.

Jan 1, 2003

By D K, S Freij, A Rossiter, X Han, B Feng

In mining operations, the removal of overburden to expose the ores is achieved by rock blasting using ammonium nitrate based explosives, eg ammonium nitrate-fuel oil mixtures, commonly known as ANFO. However, ammonium nitrate can react with pyritic shales that are often found in many mines, leading to premature detonation or spontaneous explosion. In order to minimise the occurrence of spontaneous explosion, the reactivity of the shale in a mine must be assessed. This will provide a better understanding of blasting risks and thus will improve the safety and the cost efficiency of blasting through the selection of appropriate explosives. In this study, shale samples were collected from different locations in Western AustraliaÆs Mt Whaleback iron ore mine and geochemically characterised. The reactivity of the shale samples towards ammonium nitrate and ANFO was investigated using a combination of large-scale firing range tests and laboratory isothermal reactor tests. Results of the firing range tests show that the reactive ingredients of the shale are the limiting factor for the reactions between shale and ANFO. Based on the firing range test results, further isothermal reactor tests were conducted to investigate the reactivity of shale samples towards ammonium nitrate under controlled conditions. Analysis of the results from the firing range tests and the isothermal reactor tests shows that there are correlations between the reactivity of shale samples and several geochemical characteristics such as sulfate, sulfur, ferrous and zinc content.

Jan 1, 2005

By K Williams, G M. Evans, S M. Iveson, K P. Galvin, C E. Loo

The Australian Research Council (ARC) has recently established an Industrial Transformation Research Hub in the area of iron ore, focused on iron ore characterisation, beneficiation, materials handling and end-use functionality. The research hubs are part of a new initiative aimed at building stronger relationships between industry and universities, while addressing issues of national significance. The ARC Research Hub for Advanced Technologies for Australian Iron Ore will focus its attention on developing innovative approaches for creating enhanced value across the full value chain through the characterisation of different ore types, beneficiation and materials handling and transport. This hub brings together five industrial organisations and a research team formed from well-established research groups based at the Newcastle Institute for Energy and Resources. These groups have a record of working closely with industry to create opportunities. Examples include new beneficiation technologies such as the Reflux Classifier for achieving gravity separation, the expertise of TUNRA Bulk Solids in materials handling and the Iron Making Centre at Newcastle, which is a capability maintained by BHP Billiton following the closure of its Technology Centre in 2009. The purpose of this paper is to provide an outline of the research hub and its objectives, some background on the research groups that now form the hub and an insight into the strategy adopted for developing and implementing new technologies. The paper also describes a range of novel technologies that have the potential to be developed and applied to iron ore beneficiation.CITATION:Galvin, K P, Roberts, A, Loo, C E, Evans, G M, Williams, K and Iveson, S M, 2015. Australian Research Council research hub for advanced technologies for Australian iron ore – an introduction, in Proceedings Iron Ore 2015, pp 7–12 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 13, 2015

By R A. Medower

This paper provides a glimpse into the future of minerals processing with emphasis on æAutomation InnovationsÆ for the new millennium, particularly those involving advanced process control and innovative new applications of process control technology in 2007.

Jan 1, 2000

By P A Ferenczi

The Proterozoic iron oxide related Au-Cu-Bi (Tenant Creek style') deposits at Tennant Creek can be classified as syntectonic polymetallic hydrothermal replacement type mineralisation. These deposits have characteristics in common with a number of other Proterozoic iron oxide (Cu-U-Au-REE) hosted deposits in regions which include Southeast Missouri, USA; the Kiruna district, Sweden; the Great Bear Magmatic Zone, Canada; the Stuart Shelf, South Australia; and the Wemecke Mountains, Canada. Similarities between these and Tennant Creek style deposits include: 1. Tectonic Setting: Formed at shallow crustal levels (

Jan 1, 1994