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By T. T. Read, F. C. Houghten

"The bad effects upon the health and output of miners that result when the ventilating current in a mine lacks sufficient cooling power have been described by Harrington and Sayers in a previous report (1)*** The normal temperature of the human body is about 98.5°F. and whenever work is done by the muscles, indeed even when sitting still, the normal bodily processes generate heat which must be given off, otherwise the body will become overheated and a number of bad effects will be produced. If it were possible to so enclose a man that he could continue to breathe and no heat could escape from his body he would die within a short time. In a series of experiments made at the Pittsburgh Station of the Bureau of McConnell and Houghton (2) found that a dry-bulb and a wet-bulb temperature of 112.5°F could he borne for only 35 minutes, even when the subject was at rest. A wet-bulb temperature of 100.4°F (dry-bulb 157°F) could only be tolerated for 45°F minute. Under such conditions the bodily temperature rises as much as 45°F above normal and the pulse is accelerated. Very uncomfortable sensations are felt when the pulse rate exceeds 135. The human body, like any other internal combustion engine, must be cooled in order to function properly.Under ordinary circumstances the air surroundings people is enough coder than themselves to permit this heat generated within the boiy to be river off with¬out difficulty. At higher temperatures, or when the rate of work, with its corresponding generation of heat is high, the body can not throw off heat fast enough, so it begins to sweat and the evaporation of the sweat cools the body. But the results of the experiments cited above indicate that in still air, even with the body at rent, it can not adjust its temperature when the air is above 90° wet- bulb. J. S. Haldane (4) says ""at a wet-bulb temperature of 60°F the actual amount of work done by the miner begins to fall off; as the wet bulb temperature rinse farther the work Bona gradually diminishes to the vanishing point. Then the temperatures indicated by the wet-bulb exceeds 85°F hard work in a mine seems hardly or the commercial working of a mine the wet-bulb thermometer should not in generaI, be allowed to rise above 80°F, unless perhaps where there it a good current."

Dec 1, 1923

By J. P. Morris

"INTRODUCTION In the investigation being conducted by the Bureau of Mines concerning the production and utilization of sponge iron, it soon became evident that more information was needed regarding methods for determining the degree of reduction attained in the manufacturing process. Sponge irons made by different processes vary in physical characteristics and chemical composition, and a method of analysis that is suitable for one type is not necessarily applicable to all others. For example, the hydrogen-evolution method, which measures the volume of hydrogen evolved upon treating the sample with acid, accurately determines the oxygen content of some types of sponge iron. However, when the sponge iron contains combined carbon, hydrocarbon gases are also-evolved and large errors may result. Probably no single method will give accurate results in all instances, and for this reason it is desirable to have several reliable procedures available and to know the limitations of each.For measuring the degree of reduction, determination of either metallic iron or oxygen should suffice, although for practical application of sponge iron to the production of steel the oxygen content is more significant. After consideration of proposed methods of analysis in regard to their suitability for routine use and the probable influence of other substances, four procedures were chosen for investigation:(1) Mercuric chloride method.(2) Copper sulfate method.(3) Hydrogen-reduction method.(4) Hydrogen-evolution methods."

Sep 1, 1945

On July 1, the Bonneville Power Administration announced a 25% power cutback because of lower than normal stream flow. In September, the Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) announced plans to shut down one 23,000-ton-per-year potline at its Vancouver, Wash., primary aluminum smelter. Alcoa also announced that the last of four potlines at its Point Comfort, Tex., primary aluminum smelter would be restarted in October. A new 3-year contract was signed and workers at three Alcan Aluminum Ltd. primary aluminum smelters in Canada returned to work. It was estimated that it would take about 3 months before the smelters were operating at full capacity.

Jan 1, 1979

By A. T. Sweet, G. Douglas Gardner

"INTRODUCTION In the ammonium sulfate process for the production of alumina from clay,,3/ the clay is baked with amonium sulfate at about 400ºC. to form anhydrous ammonium alum and free ammonia or ammonium carbonate. The alum is leached from the baked product with water and circulating liquors and is purified by recrystallization. Aluminum hydroxide is precipitated by treating thus alum the alum the ammonia or ammonium carbonate from the baking step. Ammonium sulfate is recovered from the filtrate for reuse, and the aluminum hydroxide precipitate is calcined to produce high-purity alumina. In this process, as in other acid processes for the production of alumina, 4/ a large part of the iron in the clay is extracted. The iron tends to build up in the leach liquors and contaminate the crystals, so that its elimination is one of the most important problems in the process. A number of large clay deposits occur in the Western States. Those that have boon explored most extensively 5/contain an average of 24 to 30 percent available A12O3 and 2 to 8 percent available Fe2O3. 6/ The available Fe2O3 content of various other clays ranges from less than I percent to more than 20 percent. The available Al2O3 or Fe2O3 is usually 90 to 98 percent of the total but may be much less. In generals the iron content bears no fixed relation to the alumina content and may vary widely within a given deposit."

Jan 1, 1948

By Thomas M. Barczak

This US. Bureau of Mines report examines the roof and floor contact pressure provided by the interaction of a shield with the surrounding strata. Controlled forces were applied to an 800-ton two-leg shield in the Bureau's mine roof simulator; the distribution of forces acting on the canopy and base of the shield were measured with 24 hydraulic pressure cells. Several influential factors that affect the load distribution were investigated: (1) the magnitude of loading (leg pressure); (2) the profile of the canopy, principally the upward-sloping tip; (3) the base-lifting device; (4) horizontal load acting on the shield; and (5) compliancy of the immediate roof and floor. It was concluded that the shield does not develop full canopy or base contact without deformation of the strata. Maximum contact pressures are developed at the rear of the canopy and on the toes of the base. Less than 10 pct of the available shield capacity is developed at the canopy tip despite the design intention to ensure tip contact. Horizontal loading reduced the toe pressure acting on the base by as much as 75 pct. The base-lifting device exaggerated the inherently high toe loading, increasing the contact pressure by more than 200 pct.

Jan 1, 2010

By G. G. Morgis

A reasonably clear and broad definition of occupational disease as originated by the Supreme Court of Ohio is: "A disease contracted in the usual and ordinary course of events which from the common experience of humanity is known to be incident to a particular employment." An ailment does not become an occupational disease simply because it is contracted on the employer's premises. It must be one that is commonly regarded as natural to, inherent in, and concomitant of the work in question. The important distinction between accidental-traumatic injuries and occupational-disease injuries is that accidents occur at specific times, ordinarily are discovered readily, and usually leave no question as to the particular employer it whose development the accident occurred. On the other hand, occupational diseases may develop slowly, unknown to the employer and employee until disability occurs, and the injuries sustained are continuing disabilities over an extended period of time and may be incurred while the employee is working for one of several employers.

Jan 1, 1952

By E. P. Youngman

The basic mining law of Netherland India is contained in N. I. Statute 1899 , No. 214 , as amended by N. I. Statute 1910 , No. 588 , and 1919 , No. 4 , which is quoted as the " Indian Mining Law, " the effective date of which was fixed as May 8 , 1907 , by proclamation dated October 12 , 1906. The Indian Mining Law was supplemented by Ordinance No. 38 , of 1930 , which was passed by the Volksraad on March 18 , 1930 , to become effective on October 1 , 1930 ( superseding an earlier ordinance entitled " Government Gazette , " 1906 , No. 434) . An important law with respect to American petroleum rights , Statute No. 23 , passed February 9 , 1928 , approving contracts between the Indian Government and the Netherland subsidiary of a large American oil company , is in the nature of a private law or of an enabling act ( see section of this paper entitled " Rights of Foreigners" ) . Statute 1930 , No. 348 , effective October 1 , 1930 , sets forth in minute detail conditions under which prospecting and mining permits may be granted. Statute 1930 , No. 341 , effective October 1 , 1930 , embodies the police regulations of the mining industry.

Jun 1, 1931

Our mission is help ensure our country has an adequate, dependable supply of minerals and mate al to meet its national security and economic needs at acceptable social, environmental, and economi[c] costs. We do this by promoting and encouraging private enterprise in the development of viable and stable mineral industries through the transfer of innovative extraction, processing, recycling, an environmental technologies; our use of cooperative partnerships with industry, academia, an government; our timely, authoritative worldwide mineral intelligence; our advocacy of public policies based on good science and sound economics.

Jan 1, 1994

By E. P. Youngman

The mining law of British North Borneo is entitled " The Mining Ordinance , 1927. 113 The only mining regulation or rule available is " Rules 313 , 114 passed in accordance with article 26 of the ordinance of 1927. Before the passage of this legislation , the country had no specific law governing the granting of mineral rights , although the land law contained provisions relating to mining lands . The land ordinance of 19135 still controls in a few details . All references in this paper , unless otherwise specifically designated , are to the mining ordinance .

Mar 1, 1933

By Terrence J. Stobbe

The authors investigated the nature, cause and treatment of 234 back injuries which occurred in 156 different situations in underground coal mines. A detailed interview was conducted with each injured miner as 137 variables were explored to provide a complete picture of the injury scenario. The miners worked at 23 mines in six states. An important finding of the study was that sudden movement, which occurred in 527 of the injuries, is a more frequent factor than heavy lifting in causing hack injuries. Along with sudden movement, other major injury causing factors were equipment seat design, lifting, cable handling, and slips/trips. No significant differences were found between the injury scenarios associated with lost time and non-lost time injuries; thus, both sets of scenarios should he used in doe loping back injury control strategies. Medical treatment and rehabilitation varied in content and quality. Dialogue between the medical, rehabilitation and mining communities is needed to develop an effective treatment strategy. Back injury control related training was found to be inadequate in most mines. Mine specific training for physical stress recognition and potential sudden torte release should he added to the training currently given. Based on the information collected in this study, recommendations were made regarding equipment design, mechanical assists and procedures for material handling, training, etc., which, if implemented, will assist in reducing the frequency of back injuries in underground coal mining.

Jan 1, 1989

By B. T. Brady

Recent theoretical, experimental, and field studies conducted by the Bureau of Mines suggest that rock failures may be predicted and, in some instances, controlled. Theoretical studies that were later corroborated by laboratory and field studies predict that a seismic anomaly will precede rock bursts and/or roof falls in mines. The seismic anomaly is predicted to consist of an increase in the number of seismic events occurring in the immediate vicinity where the failure 1s nucleated. This increase will then be followed by a dramatic decrease of seismicity in a broad region that surrounds the location of the impending failure. The dimensions of this region allow a preliminary estimate of the time to failure (measured from the time the seismicity increase began) as well as an estimate of the energy that will be released at the instant of failure. Field observations indicating that this predicted behavior does precede rock bursts and a roof fall are presented in this report. Implications of results to the problem of failure control in mines that experience massive rock failures are discussed.

Jan 1, 1978

By Hanns J. Billmayer

This report, which covers the period from April 1975 to November 1975, describes the work performed in compliance with the requirements of Contract No. H0357091. The purpose of this contract was the development of protective canopy concepts applicable to rail haulage equipment used in underground coal mines.

Jan 1, 1976

By D. J. Dollhopf

An overburden handling dragline operation was conducted at a strip mine near Colstrip, Montana. The objective of the demonstration was to determine the degree a dragline could mix overburden inhibitory zones during the spoiling process. In order to quantify the mixing process the overburden was: 1) scatter spoiled; 2) dump spoiled; and 3) spoiled in a normal manner. This demonstration was part of an effort to investigate means of reestablishing non-polluted hydrological systems in areas where surface mining directly impacts shallow ground-water resources. When inhibitory material constituted < 5% of the total overburden volume, such material was essentially not detectable in the resultant spoil pile. When inhibitory material exceeded 15% of the overburden volume it was always found in the resultant spoil pile, generally with a smaller extent, indicating partial dilution. Inhibitory overburden zones often reappeared at the base or top of spoil piles in the potential aquifer and root zones suggesting the need for selective placement procedures. Scatter spoiling did not appear to be significantly more effective than normal spoiling, however clump spoiling seemed to produce less mixing of inimical zones. Mining activity has reduced ground-water levels within 1600 m of the active pit. The aquifer which is developing in spoils appears to have similar confinement characteristics as those that existed in the premined aquifer. To date no definite trends have been observed concerning changes in surface or ground-water chemistry associated with mining.

Jan 1, 1978

This is the initial issue of STATE MINERAL SUMMARIES. This publication provides estimated data and summaries of mineral activities at the State level for 1988. Most of the estimates are based on nine months data. These summaries have been prepared in cooperation with State geological surveys or related agencies. Individual State summaries are published separately as State Mineral Industry Surveys and copies can be obtained from the appropriate State Activities field office.

Jan 1, 1989

By Robert K. Guthrie, James W. Amyx, D. B. Taliaferro

"INTRODUCTION Secondary recovery of oil by water-flooding is practiced more extensively in North Texas than in any other section of the State, and the progress and experience of the operations in that area are of continuing interest to all branches of the oil industry. The first Bureau of Mines report on water flooding in North Texas 7/ chronicled the activities from December 7, 193f', when the Railroad Commission of Texas granted The Texas Co. the first permit to inject water into an oil-bearing sand, through 1944. This second report has been prepared as a supplement to Report of Investigations 3906 to show the progress and expansion of water-flooding. The format of this report is almost identical with what of report of Investigations 3906, except for a few miner changes. For the sake of brevity, certain basic information contained on the first report has not been repealed, and the reader is urged to consider the two reports as corporation writings.The North Texas area, as encompassed by the two reports, corresponds Railroad Commission of Texas Districts 7P and 9. Oil-development operations in the two districts, since oil was discovered in 1904, have resulted in the recovery of approximately 1,400,000,000 barrels of oil from a proved area that has been estimated to exceed 413,000 acres. During October barrels of oil was produces by primary and secondary-recovery methods from 1,746 flowing wells and 25,211 pumping wells, a daily average 6.6 barrels per well. Of this total volume of oil recovered in October 1947, 47,965 barrels (0.87 percent) was recovered from leases on which water-flooding operations were in progresses."

Feb 1, 1948

By David Bendersky

This report covers the activities of a feasibility study of fiber optics technology fur use in mines. The objective of the study was to evaluate, both technically and cost-wise, the possible use of fiber optic technology for underground mine communication and monitoring systems. The first phase of the study was devoted to the collection of information on the present underground mine communication systems and monitoring techniques, and the status of applicable fiber optic technology. In the second ph se of the study, a communication and monitoring system for a hypothetical underground coal mine was designed and the costs estimated. The significant findings and conclusions are presented.

Jan 1, 1982

By K. L. Paciorek

Organic materials utilized as cable Jacketing, cable insulation, standoffs, insulating boards and potting compositions were identified and d literature survey performed to obtain the required thermal oxidative and moist tracking data. Thirty representative compositions were procured and subjected to thermal and moist tracking evaluations. Tracking was found to invariably result in ignition or glow of the test specimen. Influence of parameters such as electrolyte strength and composition, temperature, conductor spacing, and electrode material were investigated. Volatile s produced by selected insulators on thermal oxidative and electrical stress were identified, quantitated, and their potential impairment action upon a current interrupter assessed.

Jan 1, 1980

THE Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act (30 U.S.C., 321-325, and amendments) become law April 5, 1644, and a period of intensive research and development in this field was begun by the Bureau of Mines. As part of this program bulletins were published on a pressure hydrogenation,3 the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis,4 and oil shale.5 The Bureau also has published a short bibliography on coal gasification,6 mostly of a theoretical nature. Because coal gasification is prerequisite to Hither the Fischer-Tropsch or coal-hydrogenation processes, publishing this sizable, collection of technical information in this form will be valuable. The material is presented in three parts, as follows: I. United States Patents. II. United Kingdom, Australian, Canadian, and South African Patents. III. Belgium, French, German, Italian, and Swedish Patents. The domestic patents for this bulletin were collected between 1963 and 1955. Some of the Foreign Patents were collected at the same time and a few of them later in 1961. Part I was published in 1960; Part II was published in 1962.

Jan 1, 1964

By Michael Rieber

The increase in f.o.b. mine prices of coal from $5/ton to over $18/ton in five years [1] has increased the significance of transportation costs. Coals produced in the vicinity of the consumer bear a much lower transport cost than those produced in the west. This differential may be used for flue gas desulfurization, other cleaning, or further processing of local coals. To the extent that western coals are cheaper to produce and have a lower sulfur content, they offset the locational disadvantage. To the extent that they have a lower heating value, the disadvantage is exercabated. Given the other conditions, an accurate analysis of transport costs will help suggest the location of coal mining and the moue of transport both transport costs and tariffs have risen. Together they have increased delivered coal prices, altered the balance between the use of coal and other fuels, helped to alter the location of mining activity, and put pressure on consumers to examine the cost effectiveness of alternative transport modes. Transportation options for long distance coal movements include rail, barge, pipeline, and EHV transmission lines. A summary of system parameters is shown in Table 2.1. Barge transport, pneumatic and slurry pipelines are discussed elsewhere in this report. Together with EHV, they have been the subject of previous studies [2,3,4]. Slurry pipelines have been shown to be especially useful where rails are not available [2] but the technical problems of dewatering, handling, and utilization of lines [5] remain unresolved. They are discussed in Section 3. Barge transportation depends on the location of the mine and consumer with respect to the waterway system. One drawback of barge shipment is interruptions due to winter, and low or high water conditions. Mine mouth power generation followed by EHV transmission of over 500 miles has been shown to be the most expensive means of delivering an equivalent amount of energy to consumers [2].

Jan 1, 1977

By K. K. Kelley

"INTRODUCTION The Bureau of Mines nitrogen peroxide process (2) 3/ for extracting manganese from low-grade ores is essentially a two-stage process involving the reversible reactionMnO2 + 2NO2 + 6H2O = Mn (NO3)2 . 6H2O (1).At lower temperatures this reaction proceeds to the rigth and affords a means of dissolving manganece and separating it from unreacted ore. At higher temperatures the reaction proceeds to the left and manganese dioxide is recovered and nitrogen peroxide regenerated for recycling. Evidently, therefore, the energy required for decomposition of manganous nitrate is a matter of practical importance. Similar information for certain other nitrates also is desirable beceuse the nitration step of the process produces appreciable amounts of nitrates of other metals, such as iron, aluminum, magnesium, calcium, and barium, some of which are not broken down in the evaporation and decomposition steps. Thus, a portion of the nitrogen peroxide is not directly available for recycling. Whether or not it is feasible to recover nitrogen peroxide locked in the more-stable nitrates depends partly on the energy required and the conditions necessary for their decomposition.To supply information bearing directly on these subjects, several researches were undertaken at the Pacific Experiment Station: (a) Heats of formation (24, 25, 26) of nitrates of manganese, magnesium, calcium, barium, and aluminum were measured at 298.2° K:; (b) low-temperature specific heats (23), in the range 51° to 298.2° K,, and entropies of nitrates of magnesium, calcium, barium, and aluminumm were determined; and (c) heat contents (21) above 298.2° K. of the nitrates of manganese, magnesium, calcium., and barium were measured. The results of these studies, when correlated by thermodymamic methods, permit evaluation, at any temperature of interest, of the energies required to decomposethe nitrates and furnish information concerning the equilibrium pressure temperature relationships."

Sep 1, 1944