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By Jung-Ah Kim

Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC) is obtained through calcination, hydration, and carbonation. Thus, the change in each process condition determines the particle size or morphology of PCC. To date, studies on precipitated calcium carbonate have mainly focused on process manufacturing PCC, aimed matter. Still, few studies on calcination or hydration have been conducted. Therefore, this study sought to investigate the effect of hydration condition on the synthesis characteristics of aragonite PCC. Results showed that the particle size of calcium hydroxide changed based on the variation of the initial hydration temperature. In particular, higher initial temperature resulted in the larger particle size of calcium hydroxide used in synthesis. The particle size and yield of aragonite also increased when calcium hydroxide made at high temperature was used. The water/solid ratio or total amount at the hydration time had no effect on the manufacturing process of aragonite, however.

Jan 1, 2006

By J. M. Tourre

Recently, interest in rare earth based oxide powders for electronic applications has risen dramatically. Considerable research has been devoted to the chemical synthesis of these compounds to improve the control of physical and chemical characteristics of the powder. In most cases, a high degree of homogeneity, purity and reproducibility is necessary in order to obtain good application properties. The synthesis parameters can control particle size, surface area, and morphology as well as the degree of homogeneity and application properties. Rhone-Poulenc, a world leader in the production of separated Rare Earth chemicals has developed a flexible process to produce a wide variety of compounds. The different processes for the synthesis of YBa 2Cu 3 O 7 will be discussed and compared to the RP process in term of product quality, cost and flexibility.

Jan 1, 1992

By Pedro Morales C.

From its beginning in the 1970s, the Teniente Converter has consistently achieved continuous improvement, and has contributed to the competitiveness and sustainability of Codelco's copper operations. The later introduction of the Slag Cleaning Furnace technology has helped to create a full technology package, referred to as the Teniente Technology. This paper outlines the features of a new research and innovation program designed to bring the Teniente Technology as a modem, competitive technology into the 21st century. The overall objectives and features of the program are described and discussed. It is fully anticipated that these activities will help position the Teniente Technology as a world-class modem technology, well-integrated and operating in a fully continuous mode in conjunction with the other units at the plant, a competitive technology which operates in harmony with respect to environmental regulations.

Jan 1, 1999

By C. R. Bennett

The first phase in the design, development and implementation of a comprehensive computational model of a copper stockpile leach process is presented. The model accounts for transport phenomena through the stockpile, reaction kinetics for the important mineral species, oxygen and bacterial effects on the leach reactions, plus heat, energy and acid balances for the overall leach process. The paper describes the formulation of the leach process model and its implementation in PHYSICA+, a computational fluid dynamic (CFD) software environment. The model draws on a number of phenomena to represent the competing physical and chemical features active in the process model. The phenomena are essentially represented by a three-phase (solid-liquid-gas) multi-component transport system; novel algorithms and procedures are required to solve the model equations, including a methodology for dealing with multiple chemical species with different reaction rates in ore represented by multiple particle size fractions. Some initial validation results and application simulations are shown to illustrate the potential of the model.

Jan 1, 2003

By Brady Butler

Many high capacity metal hydrides exhibit a high degree of stability in the hydrogenated state. This stability leads to a number of significant design problems with regard to the low temperature kinetics and thermodynamics of dehydrogenation. Nanometric metal hydride materials provide a promising route for increasing the reaction kinetics while altering the thermodynamic stability of the material. The use of nanometric metal hydride materials for hydrogen storage has largely been absent because of the difficulties associated with the synthesis of these materials. In this paper, research results on the synthesis of lithium based metal hydrides by vapor phase reactions are presented. The lithium based compounds that have been made in our lab include nanosized powders of metallic Li, Li₃N, LiNH₂ and LiH. The vapor phase process has also been used to custom engineer Li-based materials with other alloying elements or doping elements. The dependence of the characteristics of these materials on synthesis process parameters is studied. The effects of nanoscaled particle sizes on the kinetics of dehydrogenation and hydrogenation reactions are also explored.

Jan 1, 2006

By Shaolong Chen

Feeding dry sulfide concentrate into smelting furnaces enhances process performance and reduces the energy consumption and exhaust gas flow. Direct heated rotary dryers and flash dryers have being replaced by rotary steam dryers featured by very low wear rate of the pipe heating elements and long maintenance interval. Impact of the drying processes on the environment receives more and more attention as the emission legislation tightens. In this regard, environmental factors such as SO2, CO2, dust and gas flow among rotary dryers, flash dryers and steam dryers were compared. Selection of a rotary steam dryer for copper and nickel concentrate drying would be an ideal solution to reduce the pollution of exhaust gas, as drying is achieved by indirect contact to the steam at relatively low drying temperature and as the off-gas contains almost only water vapor and air. The emissions can be significantly reduced and only small and simple off-gas handling units are needed.

Jan 1, 2006

The concepts of capacity and basicity have proved extremely useful in dealing with a wide range of solute species in metallurgical slags, and as a result have been widely applied. These two concepts are reviewed, and it is suggested that the Lewis approach to basicity has much to commend it. In some cases, it appears that the term capacity has been used without due consideration being given to the nature of the solution being formed, or even to whether a true solution was being formed at all. This paper proposes a rigorous definition of capacity, based on the true nature of the solution process in slags and glasses, and briefly reviews the repercussions of this approach on data available in the literature and the limitations which it may impose on future investigations in this area.

Jan 1, 1994

By R. D. Prengaman

Wrought lead-calcium-tin anodes developed by RSR Corporation have improved the performance compared with the other lead alloy anodes. These anodes have been in continuous service at various locations around the world for as long as fourteen years. Calcium provides mechanical strength to the anode to prevent the deformation while tin increases the mechanical strength, reduces the rate of corrosion, prevents the formation of non-conducting layers on the anode surface, and dramatically improves the conductivity of the anode. Tin is also instrumental in developing the unique rolled structure of the anode which leads to the reduced rates of corrosion, longer life, and improved oxygen evolution. Cobalt additions to the electrolyte further enhance the oxygen evolution and improve the anode life. Higher current densities and higher operating temperatures reduce the anode life. The unique patented method of attaching the rolled anode sheet to the bus bar substantially reduces the resistance of this important joint and offers the substantial savings in power over the life of anode.

Jan 1, 1999

By B. J. Beaudry

The effect of various levels of purity of the rare earth fluorides and the calcium reductant used to prepare rare earth metals were determined. Metals which have low melting points such as La, Ce, Pr and Nd are not purified by distillation or sublimation. Impurities in the reactants remain as contaminants in these metals. Gd, Tb, Y and Lu which have slightly higher vapor pressures at their melting points than the first four metals are usually distilled to remove the Ta or W impurity introduced by the crucible and are purified slightly with respect to 0 and N by distillation. Rare earth metals that have high vapor pressures such as Sc, Dy, Ho and Er can be purified with respect to 0, N, C, as well as Ta or W by sublimation. The most volatile rare earth metals Sm, Eu, Tm and Yb are readily purified by sublimation and are usually prepared by a reduction-distillation process directly from the oxide. The importance of each step of the processes in determining the final purity of the individual rare earth metals is discussed.

Jan 1, 1989

By Li Cheng

The SKS copper smelting process was jointly developed by Shuikoushan Mining Corp. and ENFI (Beijing Central Engineering and Research Institute for Non-ferrous Metallurgical Industries) in China. It is a new bath copper concentrate smelting process with oxygen enriched air. The pilot plant testwork was completed successfully in 1993. SKS has demonstrated to be an advanced bottom blown smelting process. This technology got the First Class Prize of Scientific and Technological Progress awarded by CNNC (China National Non-ferrous Metal Industry Corp.) in 1994. The SKS process has significant capital and operating cost advantages. Its environmental and industrial safety and hygiene performance represents a substantial improvement when compared to conventional technologies. The technology has generated great interest in the Chinese metallurgical industry. Feasibility studies and basic designs have been carried out to incorporate in retrofit and green field smelter projects in China and abroad. This paper describes the history of the pilot plant operating data (50 tonnes dry feed/day), and discusses the features of the SKS technology, its application and possible future trends.

Jan 1, 1999

By A. Cullaj

During a period of 15 years the metallurgical and chemical complex of Elbasan containing more than 15 principal plants, producing cast-iron, steel, coke, nickel carbonate, nickel, cobalt, chromium and other products, discharged into air, river water and soil an extensive amount of hazardous wastes containing high toxic substances. A monitoring study for the levels of heavy metals in soils nearby the former plant is carried out for the first time. Very high levels (total and extractable) of contaminants such as nickel, cobalt and chromium are found in samples taken from a relatively vast territory including the city of Elbasan, situated 8 kilometres far from the plant. The most polluted samples present a total content of 1211.8 ? 2949.6 mg/kg Ni, 97.0 ? 181.2 mg/kg Co and 1358.7 ? 4130 mg/kg Cr. These levels exceed several times the phytotoxic thresholds and present a potential hazard for the inhabitants. This study, as part of a bigger multinational project on solid decontamination, will also serve to the possible application of the new phytoremediation and phytoextraction technologies, being developed in parallel in this project.

Jan 1, 2006

By E. Burgos Cruz

The behaviour of S, N and P during refining of Fe-18 wt%Cr-10 wt%Ni with calcium carbide was investigated. The effects of the initial contents of C and N in the metal phase, as well as the supply method of calcium carbide to the melt on the removal degrees of S and P were evaluated. Heats were carried out at 1873K, in MgO crucibles, using a laboratory induction furnace. It was observed that simultaneously with S and P, N and O have also participated in the reactions. It seems that, in fact, O governs the behaviour of the other elements dissolved in the melt and that N is had to the removal of P with calcium carbide. It was also noticed that high C content in the metal phase have not altered the dephosphorization and desuffirization degrees, but that the supply of calcium carbide done by injection led to a lower dephosphorization degree than the one obtained by dumping it.

Jan 1, 1995

By P. Barrios

Over a period of one year, an in-depth investigation was carried out in a conventional copper refinery to understand the behaviour of silver in copper electrolysis. The increase in silver content in the cathodes increases almost linearly with the duration of electrolysis, and the silver content of the electrolyte between the electrodes shows similar behaviour. The silver content of the cathode deposited daily depends directly on the silver concentration of the electrolyte and this, in turn, is strongly influenced by its internal temperature. The average temperature between the electrodes rises from the first to the second and to the third crop, because of the increase in the distance between the electrodes and the heat generated by the passage of the current. The mechanism of dissolution of silver from the anode, and its passage to the cathode, are discussed. Following the change to the Isa system, it was proved that the results and conclusions are analogous. Based on these results, a reduction of more than 20% in silver losses in the cathodes was achieved.

Jan 1, 1999

By Bruce W. Downing

MagPower has developed methods to control the detrimental formation of hydrogen that occurs in electrochemical reactions in numerous commercial applications such as the Magnesium-Air Fuel Cell, electrowinning, zinc alkaline batteries, hydrogen embrittlement, waste water/ metal recycling and coolants. The company?s approach to an alternative energy source is the development of an environmentally friendly non-toxic alternative power source that generates electricity through a combination of magnesium, oxygen and a saltwater electrolyte with MagPower?s patent pending hydrogen inhibitors. The magnesium-air technology has never reached the commercial stage due to its limiting power output caused by hydrogen generation. MagPowerhas solved this problem and has patents pending on its intellectual property; the Hydrogen Inhibitors and has developed several consumer power units for a variety of applications through licensing agreements. The company has also shown that the inhibitors have an impact on zinc electrowinning through laboratory test work where current efficiency was improved. This will significantly reduce power consumption and increase the efficiency of the electrowinning process, as well as reduce the potential acid mist hazards associated with electrowinning.

Jan 1, 2003

By V. A. Bryukvin

It has been found that by superimposing symmetric alternating current over the process, the rate of nickel and cobalt leaching from metallized products with copper sulfate solutions increases by a factor of 1.5 to 2.0 and the apparent activation energy of the process investigated is reduced from 12 down to 6.6 kcal/mole. It appears especially attractive to use alternating current for anodic dissolution (oxidation) of metallic scrap of refractory metals and their alloys in ammonia electrolytes permits production of high-grade commercial products in the form of respective ammonium salts using a short and virtually reagent-free process flowsheet. Similar approaches can be applied also for electrochemical processing of nickel and copper scrap in sulfuric acid media with subsequent recovery of pure sulfate salts or electrolytic processing. Electrochemical technology for recycling of tungsten-cobalt (WC 15) and tungsten-rhenium (WR 20) alloys has been also investigated. In the former case, anodic oxidation of carbide alloy was carried out in nitric acid electrolyte with production of pure tungstic acid. The research conducted has indicated that the physicochemical effect of alternating current results in a lower activation energy of electrode reactions due to changes in the mechanisms of the electrode reactions themselves.

Jan 1, 2006

By Anthony C. Mulligan

Metals have historically been used in mining since they offer an excellent combination of hardness, toughness and cost and can be fabricated to form a variety of shapes. However, for many applications the metals used today have limited performance in the environments in which they are needed. This is particularly true for geothermal environments where the brines are highly siliceous causing corrosion and accelerated wear of many components. Geothermal sources are increasingly being explored for their high thermal value as well as possible sources for future minerals. While advanced ceramics have historically been expensive to produce in comparison with metals, they offer significantly greater corrosion resistance and hardness and can improve the overall performance when used in selected ?problem? areas. One of the major drawbacks in the use of ceramics in high impact areas has been their brittle nature and propensity to fracture and spall (fail) when loaded. Recent advances in the fabrication of ceramics have combined hard (strong) ceramics with more ductile ceramics in a architecturally designed microstructure, thus allowing ceramics to perform well in these high impact regions. Additionally, ceramics are significantly more inert to corrosion from either alkaline or acidic environments and can typically be used for significantly longer periods in these environments than their metallic counterparts.

Jan 1, 2006

By H. Y. Cheng

A pulse column solvent extraction system was evaluated as an alternative to mixer-settlers for the separation and purification of rare earths. The column tested had an inside diameter of 44.5 mm and had 36 sieve plates with a free area of 25%. Pulsing was provided pneumatically using a solenoid valve controlled by a timer so that both pulse amplitude and frequency could be varied. Feed to the column was a mixed rare earth chloride solution containing 10 g RE L-1. The extractant was 5% Ionquest® 801 in Shellsol 2037 diluent. Hydraulic performance of the pulse column was excellent with no propensity towards stable emulsions or crud formation under normal operating conditions. The column was operated in organic-continuous mode with flow rates chosen so that yttrium and the heavy rare earths were extracted with high efficiency while the light rare earths were rejected. Yttrium extraction varied from 83 to 99.2%. Concentration profiles were measured in both the aqueous and organic phases, and, from this data, the height of a transfer unit (HTU), the mass transfer coefficient (Kxa) and the continuous-phase axial dispersion coefficient (Ey) were computed. The HTU ranged from 17-92 an which is within the range of values reported for other (non rare earth) pulse column systems.

Jan 1, 1992

By Andreas Ludwig, Abdellah Kharicha, Menghuai Wu

"In order to demonstrate how CFD can help scientists and engineers to better understand the fundamentals of engineering processes, a number of examples are shown and discussed. The paper will cover (i) special aspects of continuous casting of steel including turbulence, motion and entrapment of non-metallic inclusions, and impact of softreduction; (ii) multiple flow phenomena and multiscale aspects during casting of large ingots including flow induced columnar-toequiaxed transition and 3D formation of channel segregation; (iii) multiphase magneto hydrodynamics during electro-slag remelting; and (iv) melt flow and solidification of thin but large centrifugal castings.IntroductionSince the Bronze and the Iron Ages, material processing, and here especially metallurgy, has got a global importance for the economic well-being of the societies. It is thus understandable that metallurgy has changed from arts and crafts into an engineering specialty, where the knowledge of centuries has lead to an enormous commercial and technical efficiency. However, increasing competition and the necessitation of energy and CO2 reduced manufacturing methods requires the improvement of existing techniques and even the development of new, alternative production technologies. On the other hand, the opacity of liquid and solid materials and the involved high temperatures makes the experimental penetration of metallurgical processes and with that the attainment of detailed process knowledge quite difficult."

Jan 1, 2012

By David Forrest

In 1981, K. E. Drexler proposed using massively parallel nanomechanical systems to manufacture large atomically exact structures. As in macroscopic mechanical systems, they would contain components that serve traditional functions such as trusses for support, gears to transmit power, bearings for low-friction support of rotating surfaces, motors to supply torque, pipes and conveyor belts for material transport, and channels for coolant. Many of these components would only contain a few thousand atoms. Specific designs for these devices became available in the early 1990s, and a few working devices appeared in laboratories by the early 2000s. As advances continue, a thorough understanding of the operative transport phenomena will guide the intelligent design and construction of nanomechanical structures, devices, and systems. The familiar equations of continuum mechanics are generally inadequate to describe the flow of heat and mass in the proposed nanosystems. Boundary conditions often need to be described in terms of potential surfaces. Surfaces are not geometrically smooth, but periodic according to the locations of atomic nuclei. Friction occurs not due to the plastic deformation of asperities on mating surfaces, but to phenomena such as thermoelastic damping and phonon viscosity when atoms slide past each other. Electrostatic forces dominate over gravitational forces by orders of magnitude; there is no role here for natural convection. Structural components, no matter how stiff and strong, are in constant motion due to the thermal noise in the system. The fluids are described in terms of individual molecules in constant motion.

Jan 1, 2006

By Wenjie Zhu

Hexavalent chromium is a widespread environmental contaminant. An Achromobacter sp. strain nominated Ch1 can reduce soluble and toxic chromate to insoluble and non toxic Cr(III) in aerobic cultures, and no Cr(VI) decrease was observed in anaerobic cultures. In contrast with other Cr(VI) reducing microorganisms, Ch1 showed higher Cr(VI) reduction at high pH. Reduction performed under alkaline conditions at pH 7 to 11, and the optimal pH was 10. During the reduction, pH decrease was observed may caused by production of acidic metabolic byproducts from aerobic respiration. In the present study, the ability of Achromobacter sp. Ch1 to reduce Cr(VI) during growth was evaluated with lactate as an electron donor. In NB medium, Ch1 reduced 100% of 24mM of Cr(VI) in 35h, but only 73% of 30mM of Cr(VI) after 48h of inoculation. Reduction was inhibited by metal ions like Ag+, Cu2+, Zn2+, slightly inhibited by Mn2+, and not affected by Mg2+. Results revealed that reduction rate of Cr(VI) also increased with the increasing of concentrations of lactate, and complete reduction was achieved at the concentrations above 40 mM. HPLC analysis demonstrated Cr(VI) reduction was associated with the consumption of lactate. There was a large quantity of dark blue sediment generated in the culture during Cr(VI) reduction by Ch1. Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis showed that the major element composed the formed sediment was chromium presented as Cr(OH)3 precipitate. The features characterizing Cr(VI) reduction by Achromobacter sp. Ch1 are high Cr(VI) concentrations and high pH.

Jan 1, 2006