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The major technological advances of the last 30 years have profoundly reshaped mining practices. Machines keep getting bigger while productivity continues to increase and manning levels drop. These trends will continue and the introduction of breakthrough technologies will continue to accelerate, driven by a continued focus on lowering the cost of production, improving the productivity of workers and machines, and ensuring safer working environments. At the same time, global consolidation of mining companies has impacted on technology development in a range of ways. There are many potential technologies being proposed, some already operating in Australian mines. The automation of underground load-haul-dump (LHD) trucks for example, continues the process of removing workers from the most dangerous operating environments. Global positioning systems fitted to draglines, fibre optic communication channels, and 400 tonne trucks are only some examples of what lies ahead. However, where we need to return focus is to the technology of management û which is also one of the two key interrelated themes of this keynote address. Have we, as an industry, adequately been able to keep up with technological advances? Are our management systems as competent as the machinery we employ? The other key theme is the processes of globalisation and consolidation. What are the impacts on our industry? What are the implications of these processes, particularly for the ways in which we manage our people? My paper is divided into several components:some comments on the coal industry and the dramatic restructuring we have seen in recent years; in the context of this restructuring, an overview of my company and its evolution; my views on the role of contractors; some comments on the consolidation also occurring in the mining machinery and equipment, technology and services sectors; some observations on two major areas of technology û drill and blast; and trucks, shovels and excavators; the implications of consolidation and new technology for our employees and management; and finally some comments on research programs.

Jan 1, 2001

By Lewis J. W

The mineral sand orebodies of the east coast of Australia occupy approximately three per cent of the dune-heath-wetland coastal environment. They are associated with coastal plant communities ranging from Holocene high dunes carrying mature Eucalypt forests to low- lying heaths on Pleistocene deposits. Commonly, 0.25 to 1.5 per cent of the sand volume mined is removed from the site. Therefore, the volume change is insignificant. The equipment and techniques in use are flexible and the land can be returned in a manner suited to its subsequent use for grazing, subdivision or recreation. Landforms similar to the pre-existing are created in two case studies given. Sophisticated revegetation techniques are practised and are discussed in two case studies. Pre-mining vegetation surveys and post-mining monitoring are used to guide the management of the ecosystem.

Jan 1, 1976

By Grantham DL

ABS'TRACT For a number of years research efforts have been directed towards improving the efficiency of sampling and analysing coal mine roadway dusts. In the past decade the practicality of rapid, on site analysis of the incombustible content of these dusts using a radioactive technique has been receiving close attention both in Australia and overseas. Accurate measurement of the total incombustibles present is only possible by time consuming chemical methods. As the densities of the solid incombustible materials are greater than that of coal, they absorb a higher proportion of incident low energy gamma radiation than does coal. The amount of such radiation "back scattered" from mine dust samples is therefore inversely related to their average densities, and hence to their incombustible contents. This phenomenon can be used as a measure of incombustible content by employing an appropriately designed and calibrated instrument.

Jan 1, 1981

By Sheer T. J

The increasing demand for underground cooling in South African gold mines has resulted in various cooling methods being con- sidered, including the use of ice. Two main areas in connection with ice cooling systems are being investigated. The first concerns the efficient and cost effective production of ice on a larger scale than previously required for any other application. The second con- cerns the transportation of ice in pipes from surface ice-making machines to underground melting sites.

Jan 1, 1988

By D Laurence

Mining cycles have come and gone and with them there have been dramatic swings in the levels of interest and student entry into minerals-related education programs, hence graduate supply to the industry. So what is the problem? These trends will keep happening and the industry will keep on keeping on – or will it?This paper discusses recent trends in Australian minerals education programs and some international examples, together with some of the more recent initiatives taken by both the minerals education sector and the industry, such as the Minerals Tertiary Education Council (MTEC) and MEA. The real problem is that things will not just keep going the way they have over recent decades – there will come a time when there is no longer a supply of minerals academics available to provide the educational programs; and universities will simply shut down subcritical mass mining programs and invest in the much more lucrative programs such as commerce, law, medicine, etc. By the time this starts to happen it will be at least ten years too late for any last-minute reactive response by industry, if they were to try and avert such a consequence. International experience with mining programs bears out this scenario quite clearly.It is therefore timely for industry individual mines and mine management to take a much more strategic look at their role in the education sector. Sustainable mining also means sustainable minerals education – without one, the other will not function over the long-term. There is a pressing need for long-term strategic buy-in by industry into the education sector – not just for the good times, but also through the tough times. This means much more than a scholarship here or there, but includes such commitments as major industry-university research partnerships; collaborative recruitment initiatives and much more. The paper will discuss a range of such issues, problems and opportunities to address these important issues through strategic, comprehensive, long-term commitments by industry and equally significant and appropriate responses by the education sector. We care – do you?

Mar 21, 2011

This paper attempts to draw together the experience of over 30 years of research and practice in the United Kingdom on the rehabilitation of abandoned metalliferous mining wastes. The reliance on water when the mines were operating has implications for water quality and the techniques used to restore sites to alleviate the principal impacts of the mines. Drivers of reclamation included concerns about human health from wind blown dust and pollution of watercourses as well as perceptions of dereliction. Techniques of reclamation used involved removal of spoil from near to surface watercourses, capping of spoil, diversion of watercourses, use of impermeable membranes, prevention of surface sinks into underground workings and the use of constructed wetlands. The issues to be dealt with in mine reclamation have become more complex and sometimes diverge. The schemes in the 1990s described have been effective in dealing with pollution from spoil heaps and small but significant adit discharges; however, significant issues, particularly those of large flows of polluted water from mine sites, still need to be dealt with. Although the paper describes the legacy of mining, which largely finished in the late 19th/early 20th century, similar issues but on a larger scale are to be found in more recent mining, for example Eastern Europe. In many of these areas minerals still remain to be won and dealing with this legacy may fall on new mining developments.

Jan 1, 2006

By Majorkiewicz A

Engineering of gold treatment facilities complete with infrastruc- ture in a remote location such as Papua NewòGuinea present unique problems to the design team. Site location, topography, ground conditions and infrastructure are some of the major hurdles to overcome when setting out on the design of such plants. This paper discusses two such plants, located in two distinctly different areas of Papua New Guinea and the solutions evolved in order to design successful operating facilities.

Jan 1, 1991

Managers are demanding efficient use of their resources and part of this demand is leading to the idea of integrated audits for Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S), quality and the environment. It is possible to construct audits which test the compliance in this area with standards established by management systems and it may be that such an integrated audit of a site could reduce the time of auditing and be equally effective as three separate audits. However, this is only a maybe. To do an audit on all three aspects when they are not fully integrated results in more time wastage than doing three separate audits. But organisations are not structured around the audit process (some financial managers may query this statement). The organisational management systems are put in place to achieve the organisational goals - presumably in an efficient and cost-effective manner.

Jan 1, 1995

As mines become deeper, the problems of heat in the workplacebecome more acute. An important response from the industry hasbeen the widespread adoption of microclimate cooling such asair-conditioned cabins. However, not all work in mines can becompleted from inside an air-conditioned cabin, and in any event,it is still important to keep the ambient air in the mine outside ofany microclimate to a safe temperature. An important method forbringing workplace temperatures under control is the appropriateuse of refrigeration. The application of refrigeration inmechanised mines has been recently described (Brake, 2001;Brake and Fulker, 2000). This paper provides an overview ofsome of the important engineering considerations in thespecification and selection of mine refrigeration plants. Thepurpose is to provide a basic understanding of refrigerationprinciples, practices, terminology, hazards and opportunities formining engineers or other personnel who may need to beinvolved in the introduction of refrigeration onto a mine site.

Jan 1, 2001

By A R. A Gomes

The Metropolitan Rapid Transit Authority (MRTA) Initial System Project (ISP) - Underground Structures North, UGN, is the northern section of the blue line, which is the first stage of an underground mass transport rail system of 77 km to be implemented in the central area of Bangkok, Thailand. The UGN section (Huai Kwang - Bang Sue) consists of approximately 8 km of twin single track bored tunnels, nine underground stations and some short cut and cover tunnel sections. The paper focuses on the main issues involved in the structural design of the precast concrete lining, which is the definitive structural support of the bored tunnels. It includes an overview of the site and geotechnical conditions, specific properties of precast concrete linings, ground-structure modelling, approach for the assessment of load conditions and respective sectional forces and particulars of the detailing of the reinforcement and the segment testing program.

Jan 1, 1999

A new lead refinery with a. capacity of 230,000 tons per year com-menced operation at*Port'Plsie in October, 1959. This plant' superseded the refinery which had operated from 1933 with the advent of thecontinuous lead refining process. The incorporation of new equipment following local metallurgical developments, together with the overseas demand for lead of extremely low antimony content, created difficulties in operating the original plant. The new refinery project was under-taken to cover this disability and to gain the full advantage of the new processes.Desilverising and softening are carried out in units identical in size to those used previously. Metallic'zinc is now recovered from the entire output of desilverised bullion by vacuum distillation. Final refining is then carried out by batch'treatinent with caustic soda yield-ing lead of purity previously unattainable at Port Pirie.These two processes have replaced continuous dezincing by oxidation, a high temperature process which caused large quantities of lead and antimony to be recirculated. As the final stage is a .batch process the product composition can be.checked before casting. Individual batches can be adjusted to produce special alloys to,consumer's specification.Improved casting equipment has allowed the quantity production of pigs of good physical characteristics either as 56 lb bars or 2000 lb pigs. This, together with the high purity of the lead, has assured the B.H.A.S. position in world markets.Automatic control systems have been extensively employed particularly on the vacuum dezincing unit.The anticipated financial benefits have been achieved mainly by a reduction in the tonnage of recirculated materials, a smaller labour force, and reduced maintenance requirements.

Jan 1, 1963

By M J. Kelleher

CREAM is an acronym for coal recovery, evaluation, analysis and management and is a business improvement project at BMAÆs Goonyella Riverside mine that is focussed on maximising coal recovered. In August 2003, Goonyella Riverside was set a challenge to quantify coal loss and dilution and their relationship to cost, revenue and ultimately profit. While the mine was confident in its site forecasts of recovery (and loss), it was clear that the traditional measurement and analysis systems were inadequate to firstly, identify key loss areas and mechanisms and secondly, successfully quantify the benefit of various coal recovery initiatives. The path that BMA Goonyella Riverside has travelled to maximise coal recovered can be divided into four key steps: Mapping the process û This step involved the development of a coal flow process map for Goonyella Riverside that stepped through each component of the process from the coal reserve to the customer and identified key measurement points for the purposes of reconciliation. Understanding coal loss and identifying opportunities û This step involved conducting two detailed Reserve to Customer projects at the mine site to track a block of coal from the reserve to the customer and to gain a greater understanding of the relationship of dilution, coal loss mechanisms, revenue and costs associated with recovering additional coal. Coal data systems development û Two important coal data systems have been developed and implemented at Goonyella Riverside in the past twelve months, namely SnowdenÆs Coal Reconcilor and SeamFix. These systems enable coal losses and dilution to be quantified and reconciled back to the initial coal reserve. Implementation of loss reduction initiatives û This step involved the formation of a business improvement project referred to as æCREAMÆ in August 2004, for the purposes of improving pit coal recovery and maximising business value. To date a series of coal recovery trials have been run in a number of pits at Goonyella Riverside that have yielded significant improvements in business value. The key to the success of this project has been the discipline to follow a defined process map, management commitment through resourcing and shared key performance indicators, a successful acceptance strategy resulting in holistic ownership and the implementation of sustainable reconciliation systems. Coal loss and dilution are now quantifiable and their relationship to cost, revenue and ultimately profit is well understood. This paper discusses the process that Goonyella Riverside has adopted to maximise coal recovered.

Jan 1, 2005

By A G. Pavlides, B L. Weekes

The Sepon Copper Project is located in the Savannakhet Province of Laos PDR and is operated by Lane Xang Minerals Ltd (LXML). An Ausenco - Bateman Engineering joint venture, the Khanong Development Group (KDG) managed engineering, procurement and construction of the project. The plant was fully commissioned in March 2005, two weeks ahead of schedule. The plant is designed to produce 60 000 tpa of cathode copper. The process flow sheet includes a pressure oxidation (POX) circuit that leaches pyrite flotation concentrate to generate ferric ions and sulfuric acid for use in atmospheric leaching of a predominantly chalcocite ore. The process is unique in that the chemistry in the autoclave is forced to produce a basic ferric sulfate precipitate for downstream recovery of ferric iron. This paper describes the design, construction and commissioning of the pressure oxidation circuit. The challenges imposed on construction and commissioning due to the remote location of the site, landlocked status and underdeveloped infrastructure in Laos are highlighted.

Jan 1, 2005

By F Pavloudakis

The installation of on-line analysis systems in the open-pit mines of the Public Power Corporation SA (PPC, the state-owned electricity entity of Greece) is considered to be the key-parameter for performing improved quality control and blending/homogenisation of the produced lignite. In order to investigate the accuracy of these systems under the site-specific conditions of the Greek lignite deposits, a research project was carried out. This was necessary since there is lack of experience in using on-line analysers in mines that produce a fuel of such a poor and largely fluctuating quality. After thorough market research, a dual energy gamma ray transmission on-line ash analyser was installed in Kardia mine of Ptolemais û Amynteon Lignite Centre, which is located in West Macedonia, Greece. The initial results obtained after the realisation of a series of dual-comparison trials (ie using two series of reference values that allow three-way comparisons) pointed out several problems that obstacle the achievement of high accuracy on-line measurements. More specifically, the measurements obtained by the analyser were higher than the concentrations determined by the two laboratories when the ash content was lower than 12 per cent (in wet basis). On the contrary, when the ash content was higher than 12 per cent, the measurements of the on-line analyser were lower than the concentrations determined by the laboratories. In other words, the range of the measurements obtained by the analyser was narrower than that corresponding to the lab analyses results. Therefore, the use of this on-line analysis system under the site-specific operating conditions of Kardia mine does not guarantee improved quality control of the lignite fed to the mine-mouth located power plant. Most probable reasons that explain the above-mentioned problems are the following: The frequent and widely ranging fluctuations of the chemical and mineralogical composition of the lignite transported by the conveyor belt, especially as far as its calcium content is concerned. This result from the nature and the origin of the mineral matter co-excavated with the lignite, which varies from calcareous marls to sands and clays rich in aluminium and silica minerals. The fluctuations of the lignite quantity transported by the conveyor belt. The change of the linear concentration of iron contained in the fabric of different belt parts.

Jan 1, 2003

By J L. Merritt

Effective minesite water management requires that this issue be treated as a risk management exercise. The management process is generally far from simple and by necessity must involve a range of personnel covering a siteÆs commercial, operational and environmental interests and responsibilities. The challenge to be collectively faced by these stakeholders is to strike the correct balance between risk and cost. On the other hand, the challenge to be faced by technical services support personnel is to provide stakeholders with information in a format that they can use with confidence. This paper presents the application of continuous operational simulation (OPSIM) modelling techniques to establish appropriate risk profiles for minesite operations. It is necessary that the format of these risk profiles be generic and equally applicable for defining the risk of occurrence for a relatively comprehensive range of activities û eg from of a non-compliant discharge, to the risk of failure to meet production targets. What is more, the profiles need to be quantitatively based and capable of reflecting change in system response to varied operational or management strategies. The techniques presented in this paper are based around a key assumption that long-term records of the climate contain within them sets of sequences that are representative of what can be expected in the future û that is, the droughts, floods, cyclones, good years and bad, long or short, and everything in between. Therefore, if these historical records are run through an OPSIM model for a particular site, then the simulated operational characteristics can be taken as being representative of what can be expected in the future, in the long-term. This lends itself to statistical analysis and translation into the required risk based format. Water Solutions Pty Ltd have been working with Capricorn Coal Management to develop a relatively comprehensive OPSIM model of their operations at German Creek Mine, Central Queensland. Outcomes from the modelling have been used in recent times to provide mine management with risk-based guidelines for both securing and containing mine water inventories. One of the more interesting tasks has been to establish risk based inventory levels that, if reached, would trigger the immediate implementation of a contract for the desalination and re-use of mine water, at predefined rates. Also, lead-time warning of the occurrence of a possible trigger is of importance to operational and commercial planning. To service this requirement the OPSIM model is regularly used to produce lead-time estimates to defined levels of confidence. Case studies of these, and other, applications of the OPSIM model at German Creek Mine are presented in this paper and serve to demonstrate an effective methodology for practical risked based water management.

Jan 1, 2003

The Graham Farmer Freeway Project in Perth, Western Australia, is the largest urban infrastructure project ever carried out in the State. At a project cost of over $360 million, it also ranks as one of the largest in Australia and is even large by world class standards. The project provides a much needed east-west freeway bypass around the CBD of Perth, linking the Great Eastern Highway in the east with the Kwinana and Mitchell Freeway system in the west. The Bypass will have 6.5 kilometres of freeway, a major bridge over the Swan River, several pedestrian overpasses and underpasses, dual use paths, interchanges and flyover bridges and a rail tunnel. The whole project is being carried out over a four-year time frame, due to be complete and open to traffic in June 2000. The project has been divided into two stages, with Stage 1 including the 1.63 kilometre long Northbridge Tunnel, the subject of this paper.

Jan 1, 1999

By Brook W. H

The history of the reduction of iron from its ores is lost in antiquity. Archreologists state that man has practised it for over four thousand years. Until comparatively recent times charcoal was the principal reducing agent for making metallic iron from its various oxidised ores. Coke was first used by iron founders in England in 1619, and its use spread gradually throughout the civilised world from then onwards. Indeed, the destruction of forests to obtain the requisite charcoal made the iron founders, both in England and America, extremely unpopular, and this hampered the iron industry to a considerable extent, until coal provided the metallurgist with a new and better fuel--coke which is used by most pyro-metallurgists today. The transition from wood to coal products for iron smelting had a profound effect on the location of iron works. Particularly was this the case in America where, in the infancy of the industry, practically each of the early States had its own iron producers, but as coal and coke replaced charcoal, there came about a concentration of the iron and steel industry around the coking coal deposits, and so today there are huge steel plants clustered around the soft coal basins in Pennsylvania and Illinois.The development of the iron and steel industry in Australia, which is comparatively recent by world standards, has been cradled in the coal basins of New South Wales. The first steel works of any consequence in this country were built near Lithgow, close by the mines which produced the coal for coking.Incidentally, these works were rather unique in that the three essential materials for iron and steel manufacture-ore, coal, and limestone-were found virtually at the works' back door.When, in 1912, the location of the proposed steel works for The Broken Hill Pty. Co. Ltd. for smelting ore from Iron Knob in South Australia was considered, the site ultimately chosen was at Newcastle, almost on top of seams of satisfactory coking coal. One of the major factors which had determined the site of the steel works was the fact that, about 1912, three tons of coal were required to produce one ton of finished steel product, and the relative economics of ore and coal haulage were much in favour of bringing ore to the coal.

Jan 1, 1947

Tin mining has taken place in the New England region of New South Wales since 1872. Until fairly recent times there was little pro- vision made for environmental protection. Mining methods,which included ground sluicing and open cutting,had considerable environmental impact. Much of the topsoil was lost and there is little vegetation on the infertile and at times toxic, subsoil. Thus much of the lands disturbed by mining have not been stabilised and are eroding, causing extensive pollution of adjacent watercourses. There are more than 1500ha of abandoned tin mine sites in the New England, representing one of the worst rehabilitation problems in New South Wales and reflecting poorly on the mining industry as a whole. Recent tin mining operations incorporate progressive rehabilitation in their mining cycle. Topsoil is stockpiled and later respread. This topsoil contains a seed source, facilitating revegetation and thus stabilisation. The tin mining industry, under considerable cost pressures at present, is seeking a cost- effective revegetation technique. Most of the mines in the New England are situated in a forest environment. Trials have been conducted in the past using exotic pasture species with limited success due to the characteristics of the subsoil. Other revege- tation trials have used pine or eucalypt tree species. The cost of these techniques is a major disadvantage. Certain acacias species were observed colonising disturbed tin mining areas on very infertile subsoils. Acacias have a number of characteristics indicating a possible applic- ations in mine rehabilitation programmes.

Jan 1, 1987

By G Brewster

The Eagle on the Hill tunnels form part of an upgrade of Mt Barker Road, 15 km to the southeast of Adelaide. The upgrade significantly improves safety and reduces delays on this major road, which winds steeply through mountainous terrain. The twin tunnels each spanning 15 metres run in parallel for a length of 480 metres. The tunnels are excavated in slightly weathered high strength slates and very high strength quartzites of the Saddleworth Formation on the western margin of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Steeply dipping slate cleavages and the high fracture ratio result in many slope stability problems in the project area. The level of geotechnical investigation undertaken prior to the calling of tenders for the project was extensive. This included the excavation of a pilot tunnel along one of the tunnel alignments, which allowed accurate mapping and rating of the rock, resulting in an increased level of confidence during the tender process. One of the features of the winning alternative tender design was the use of canopy tubes, flexible steel ribs and shotcrete to replace up to 40 metres of deep portal cuts in unstable rock with driven tunnels. Slope stability issues were overcome with the use of rock dowels and shotcrete. The support concept allowed the safe driving of the tunnel portals with as little as two metres of overburden. The design incorporated lining drainage and criteria for fireproofing based on European experience to ensure the ability of the tunnels to remain stable in the case of a severe fire incident. The support design allowed for maximum flexibility with a range of support types able to deal with the varying ground conditions. Design development and support refinement continued throughout the tunnel construction phase with close liaison between the designer and the constructor. Monitoring and review of feedback from the construction site by the Sydney based design team was easily achieved by means of electronic transfer of photographic and survey information, telephone and fax communication and regular site visits. The contractor for this project is Macmahon Concrete Constructions Joint Venture (MCCJV) and the designer is Connell Wagner. Excavation commenced in January 1998 with tunnel breakthrough having been achieved in early-August 1998 and mid-September 1998 respectively. Concrete lining construction is scheduled for completion in April 1999.

Jan 1, 1999

By M McLean

This paper deals with change strategies on brownfield and greenfield sites in extractive industries. It draws upon contemporary experiences across Australian, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (PNG). Change strategies can be used when owners of an extractive industry operation want to optimise their resource. This paper draws upon many tried and proven theories and practices, including the findings of the Tavistock Institute (Trist, Emmery, Bamford, Jaques), as well as the concepts of Adult Learning espoused by Malcolm Knowles and is supported by learnings of Australian based management consultants. This paper reviews a range of approaches that have succeeded in the integration of systems, machines and people, with the key corporate objectives of: increasing productivity; decreasing cost; improving on-time delivery performance and achieving long-term survival. Such integration needs to be measured to show the outcomes from the change strategies and the authors have worked within many measurement regimes and metrics but for the most part, found that JaquesÆ set of metrics being æquality, quantity, resources and timeÆ has gained currency across many Australian operations. This paper contends that investing money in machines alone without a commensurate investment into the people side is counter-productive. Further, if there is not an understanding of processes, ie stable and capable, core and support processes, then all that new technologies will do, is to make what is done badly, only quicker. Recent interventions for the most part, have been cognisant of this balanced approach towards change management. The change strategies described are across extractive industry implementations, using a number of tools and techniques drawn from Continuous Improvement and Six SigmaÖ (registered trade and service mark of Motorola Corporation, USA).

Jan 1, 2006