Search Documents

By R. P. Carreker

ONE of a series, this report is concerned with the experimental documentation of the deformation behavior of pure metals over a wide range of temperature. Previous reports in the series describe the creep behavior of platinum1 and aluminum2 and the tensile behavior of copper,&apos; silver,& and molybdenum.5 Subsequent reports will describe the creep behavior of copper and silver and the tensile behavior of platinum, thus providing extensive creep and tensile data on four face-centered-cubic metals tested under comparable conditions. Material Two lots of high-purity aluminum were used in this investigation. One lot, designated AC, was obtained direct from the Aluminum Co. of America as high-purity aluminum in notch-bar form. A typical analysis of this type of aluminum is 0.006 pct Si, 0.015 pct Cu, 0.006 pct Fe, and 99.975 pct Al. Lot BS was obtained from J. I. Hoffman of the Bureau of Standards as a portion of the Aluminum A described in his report of the redetermination of the atomic weight of aluminum.6 Lot BS originated with the Aluminum Co. of America also, and was received in the standard notch-bar form. A detailed chemical and spectroscopic analysis of lot BS has been published.6 Principa1 impurities were 0.006 pct Si, 0.003 pct Fe, 0.002 pct Cu, and >99.987 pct Al. Samples were processed identically by room-temperature swaging and drawing to 0.030 in. diam wires from approximately ½ in. diam rods that were machined from the notch-bar pigs. Samples were cut from the cold-drawn wire, placed in a grooved graphite block in groups of thirteen, and annealed in air for 1 hr at each of several temperatures, with the results shown in Table I. The two lots of aluminum responded quite differently to annealing, the behavior of aluminum AC suggesting that its grain growth was controlled by impurities. The recrystallization texture of aluminum of similar purity comparably treated has been reported as predominantly <111> fiber with some <100> fiber present.7 Testing Procedure The testing procedure and method of analyzing the data have been described previously.2,3 Annealed specimens of 5 in. gage length were tested in an Instron tensile testing machine at a constant head motion corresponding to a strain rate of 0.04 min-&apos; at a number of temperatures. Instantaneous tenfold rate changes were employed in some tests to deter-

Jan 1, 1958

By T. Egleston

I HAVE to announce with great regret that our distinguished honorary member, Louis Gruner, died in Paris in March last. The Institute, in his death, has lost one of the first as well as one of the greatest of its honorary members. I speak with great feeling, as he was both my instructor and my friend ; and I am sure that if he could hear what I am about to say of him, lie would object to it. Mr. Gruner&apos;s modesty was such as even to prevent, except in his own Corps, the thorough appreciation of his work in his own country. I think be mas better appreciated by those who are familiar with his labor in almost any other country than his own. A just man, a thorough scholar, a great investigator, he was so unselfish that almost the last act of his life, and the last letter he signed, only a few hours before his death, had for its ohject to render a service to one of his former pupils. I think no one who mas ever associated with him could forget, in the greatness of his learning, the sincere and earnest friend, mho was always ready to render a service, where such service could be rendered even at great inconvenience to limself. His own motto, "Sein, nieht schein;" that is, "Be, not appear to be," was singularly descriptive of his character; and, what is more than all, he was one of the most earnest Christian men with whom it has ever been mv. good fortune to be thrown in contact. There are few such men. He was one of the greatest metallurgists that Europe has ever produced; a man the more remarkable because, though known to most of us as a metallnrgist, some of the best work of his life was in the domain of geology to which he contributed very important researches and memoirs, which will remain permanently among the valuable additions to the geology of his own country. He was, at the same time that he was the greatest metallurgist in Europe, a brilliant chemist, a thorough geologist, a distinguished professor, and an expert, practical miner, whose advice and methods had only only to be known to be followed. Mr. Gruner was born in Smitzerland in 1809, and graduated from the Polytechnic School of Paris in 1530 and entered the School of Mines, from which he graduated with distinction in the Corps of Government Engineers of Mines at an early age, and was immedi-

Jan 1, 1884

By T. A. Klinefelter, R. G. O’Meara, Glenn C. Truesdell, Richard W. Smith

THE investigation of domestic tales was undertaken by the Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior, in cooperation with the University of Alabama, at the request of the U. S. Army, on Dec. I, 1941: "Considerable concern has been expressed by the Supply Arms and Service over maintaining continued availability of supplies of the necessary raw materials. These ceramic products are used by the Signal Corps in all army radio equipment, and to a greater degree in the new ultra-high-frequency equipment. The Air Corps has become a user of large amounts of radio-grade ceramics for aircraft spark-plug covers required for high-altitude operations. In addition, the use of this material is essential to the proper functioning of the radio air-navigation aids of the Civil Aeronautics Board." HISTORY The use of steatite and talc in ceramic bodies goes back a great many years. If pure, tales shrink little under heat-treatment and are very resistant to heat shock. The massive form, commonly called "steatite" by the trade, cuts and works easily, and this was naturally the first method used in obtaining articles of talc. When gas was in general use for illuminating purposes, a large business was carried on in the manufacture of tips for gas burners.1 With the development of uses for electricity, low-tension insulators were made in a similar manner; and, in fact, the forming of shapes from massive talc continues. However, as the business increased, cuttings and waste became more and more of a problem. In the twenties, one of the larger producing firms had a cooperative agreement with the Bureau of Mines at its Columbus station to work out a body using the finely powdered material. Somewhat earlier, manufacturers of spark plugs used the finely ground talc as part of the body and to some extent in wall-tile bodies. Somewhat later it came into use for kiln furniture and similar products and still more recently it has been used in some dinnerwares. With the development of the radio and the high-frequency fields generated, it was found that a dense steatite porcelain was far better than even high-tension electrical porcelain, which is a clay-flint-feldspathic type of body. Until the war increased the demand, the several pioneer steatite-porcelain manufacturers were able to furnish adequate supplies. When war began in Europe and Asia, three important foreign sources of raw material were cut off; i.e., the French, Italian, and Manchurian tales. Domestic producers of high-grade porcelain are few, and the trade

Jan 1, 1943

By James A. Barr

The writer&apos;s first experience with flotation was during World War I, in the bene-ficiation of Alabama graphite schist ores. One plant used a cone with a peripheral overflow; dried ore was distributed by a rotating disk onto the surface of the water. No reagents were added&apos; The flake-graphite film floated along with some fine silica. Dewatering screens separated the flake. Naturally unit capacities were low but results were satisfactory. Minerals separation mechanical flotation machines were used in another graphite mill. pine oil was added directly to the head cells, with very good results. All the graphite concentrates from both types of flotation were carefully refined after drying by passing through burr mills, followed by very close sizing on sifters. In March 1927, the writer ran a very successful flotation test on minus 28-mesh, deslimed, Tennessee brown phosphate "sand,"† using a mechanical laboratory machine built in the shops of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., through the courtesy of Ernest Klepetko. The machine was soon converted to a subaeration type, with improved results. This phosphate research program was greatly enlarged and led to the formation of the phosphate Recovery corporation. The development of nonmetallic flotation followed rapidly. The first flotation machine for bene- ficiation of phosphate was installed in January 1928, in a pilot mill, by International Minerals and Chemical Corporation, at Mulberry, Florida. These machines were Minerals Separation, 24-in., sub-,,,tion types, with weir control of pulp between cells. The sand bleeders were very small—about 1¼-in. diameter. As the feed flake. Is to 25 per cent plus 28-mesh material, the cells choked up frequently. This was corrected by cutting a 2 by 6-in. bleeder opening above the impellers, at grid level, which short-circuited the coarse fractions directly into the feed of the next cell. The matter of size classification and grinding was a considerable problem, which does not come within the scope of this article. Because of the troubles noted above, cascade-type roughers were installed in the second flotation plant, built about 1930. Experimental cells had been tried in 1928. General plant layout is shown in Fig. 1 and details of the cascade construction in Fig. 2. The cascade installation in plant NO. 2 gave good results and eliminated troubles due to choke-ups and coarse feed. The capacities and metallurgical results equaled those of the modified 24-in. Minerals Separation flotation machines in plant No. I The objections to the cascade installation are the floor space and mill height required. In 1939 an improved Minerals Separation machine was tested in parallel with the cascades. Extensive tests indicated

Jan 1, 1947

By James A. Barr

The writer&apos;s first experience with flotation was during World War I, in the bene-ficiation of Alabama graphite schist ores. One plant used a cone with a peripheral overflow; dried ore was distributed by a rotating disk onto the surface of the water. No reagents were added&apos; The flake-graphite film floated along with some fine silica. Dewatering screens separated the flake. Naturally unit capacities were low but results were satisfactory. Minerals separation mechanical flotation machines were used in another graphite mill. pine oil was added directly to the head cells, with very good results. All the graphite concentrates from both types of flotation were carefully refined after drying by passing through burr mills, followed by very close sizing on sifters. In March 1927, the writer ran a very successful flotation test on minus 28-mesh, deslimed, Tennessee brown phosphate "sand,"† using a mechanical laboratory machine built in the shops of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., through the courtesy of Ernest Klepetko. The machine was soon converted to a subaeration type, with improved results. This phosphate research program was greatly enlarged and led to the formation of the phosphate Recovery corporation. The development of nonmetallic flotation followed rapidly. The first flotation machine for bene- ficiation of phosphate was installed in January 1928, in a pilot mill, by International Minerals and Chemical Corporation, at Mulberry, Florida. These machines were Minerals Separation, 24-in., sub-,,,tion types, with weir control of pulp between cells. The sand bleeders were very small—about 1¼-in. diameter. As the feed flake. Is to 25 per cent plus 28-mesh material, the cells choked up frequently. This was corrected by cutting a 2 by 6-in. bleeder opening above the impellers, at grid level, which short-circuited the coarse fractions directly into the feed of the next cell. The matter of size classification and grinding was a considerable problem, which does not come within the scope of this article. Because of the troubles noted above, cascade-type roughers were installed in the second flotation plant, built about 1930. Experimental cells had been tried in 1928. General plant layout is shown in Fig. 1 and details of the cascade construction in Fig. 2. The cascade installation in plant NO. 2 gave good results and eliminated troubles due to choke-ups and coarse feed. The capacities and metallurgical results equaled those of the modified 24-in. Minerals Separation flotation machines in plant No. I The objections to the cascade installation are the floor space and mill height required. In 1939 an improved Minerals Separation machine was tested in parallel with the cascades. Extensive tests indicated

Jan 1, 1947

By G. Aertsen

THE CHAIRMAN (HENRY D. HIBBARD, Plainfield, N. J).-This excellent paper fills a gap in our Transactions and is most acceptable. In the early days another way of casting tire ingots, sometimes called cheeses, because of their shape, was to use a 22-gage sheet-iron cylindrical can for each ingot of the proper size to give the weight desired. These cans were bottom cast in groups, usually of four, each can being surrounded by a heavy iron ring somewhat taller than itself the top of the can being covered by a circular cast-iron plate having a small conical riser in the center, about 2 ½ in. in diameter at the bottom and 10 in. high. The top plate was clamped down to resist the upward pressure of the fluid metal and the space between the can and the outer ring, usually about 2 in. wide, was filled with dry sand. The riser permitted the escape of some of the air displaced by the steel and also increased the pressure in the steel when the mold was filled, and so diminished somewhat the tendency for gas holes to form. But little was known of segregation and pipe in those days, though the center of an ingot was understood to be the worst part, and it was separated in part in the disk which was punched out in perforating the ingot. This disk was about 8 in. in diameter and from ¾ to 2 in. thick, the variation in thickness being to rectify the weight. When an ingot was too -heavy, a thicker disk-was made by not driving the punch in quite as far as when the ingot-weight was right. Then the bloom was turned over and the punch driven in on the other side, which finished the punching and detached the disk. The tire bloom was then" becked" and later reheated and rolled as described in the paper. The forging was done with a 10-ton double-acting steam hammer. The steel generally speaking had lower carbon, from 0.45 to 0.55 per cent., than tires today have, and the tires were smaller, the most common size of ingot weighing 1,060 lb. each. BRADLEY STOUGHTON, New York, N. Y.-This paper was specially requested by the Iron and Steel Committee, because that Committee thought so important an industry should have its history written by one who was familiar with it, and before he had forgotten, or all the rest of the world had forgotten, its early stages. Mr. Aertsen has said that it is not an exhaustive research. I think it would not be any different if it were an exhaustive research, because our library made a careful attempt to find some written light on the history of these tires, but very little was found.

Jan 4, 1917

By W. H. Herrnstein, F. H. Beck, M. G. Fontana

Sulfur solubility in a iron was measured in the 750 to 890°C temperature range and was found to be insensitive to ferrite purity within a limited composition range. The permeability of sulfur in ferrite was determined from the internal sulfidation of Fe-Mn alloys. From the solubility and permeability results, the diffusivity of sulfur in ferrite could be calculated. These results are summarized as follows: Dissolved sulfur decreased the lattice parameter of ferrite. The effect of dissolved sulfur on the tensile properties of ferrite at low temperatures was also determined. SINCE sulfur is an important residual impurity in commercial irons and steels, effects associated with the presence of sulfur as a solute in iron are of considerable practical interest. Unfortunately, certain basic information relative to the Fe-S system appears to be lacking in the literature, e.g., the effect of dissolved sulfur on the lattice parameter and mechanical properties of ferrite. In addition, discrepancies exist in previously reported results for the solubility of sulfur in ferrite. These discrepancies raise questions regarding the sensitivity of sulfur solubility to the purity and microstructure of iron. This study was undertaken primarily in an effort to obtain reliable data on the solubility of sulfur in ferrite. Additional objectives included determination of the permeability and diffusivity of sulfur in ferrite by the internal sulfidation method and determination of the effect of dissolved sulfur on the lattice parameter and tensile properties of ferrite. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Three grades of iron, encompassing a range of impurity levels, were employed in the study. The grades were designated VME (vacuum-melted electrolytic), SPZR (single-pass zone-refined), and MPZR (multipass zone-refined). The composition of each grade is given in Table I. Poly crystalline and single-crystal strip specimens were employed in the solubility experiments. Uniform grain size strip (ASTM 3 to 5) of 0.005 to 0.020 in. thickness was obtained by alternate cold reductions of 60 thickness 60 to 80 pct and recrystallization at 650°C for i hr in pure, dry argon. Single-crystal specimens were produced in 0.010-in.-thick SPZR iron strip by the strain-gradient anneal technique. Recrystallized strip 0.25 in. wide was strained until a Luders band or bands had propagated over the length of the strip; the strip was then annealed by drawing it through a 150°C per in. gradient (890°C peak temperature) at 1 in. per hr in an atmosphere of pure, dry argon. Laue photographs of the crystals produced exhibited no discernible asterism. Specimens were equilibrated with H-H, atmospheres at temperatures between 750" and 890" by one of two methods, each of which makes use of the reaction: The encapsulation sulfurization method was employed in the majority of the solubility experiments. A strip

Jan 1, 1969

By W. T. Isbell, Carleton C. Long

Zinc recovery from lead blast-furnace slags has heretofore been an indirect process, involving, first, the fuming off and collecting of an impure zinc oxide, and second, the reduction of the zinc portion of this oxide to metal either by electrolytic or pyrolytic means. (In a variation of this process, blue powder is the intermediate product rather than zinc oxide fume.) In 1940, W. T. Isbell proposed that molten slag from the lead blast furnace or stock-pile slag melted down in a blast or cupola-type furnace be charged directly into an airtight container (i.e., furnace) provided with means to heat further the slag by passage of electric current and means to introduce the carbon (coke) necessary to reduce the ZnO constituent of the slag to zinc as a zinc vapor and CO. He also proposed that the zinc vapors so obtained be condensed in a Weaton-Najariant internal condenser directly connected to the proposed furnace. It was thought that the Weaton-Najarian condenser could liquefy zinc vapor from lean mixtures of vapor and noncondensable gases. Such condensers have been in commercial use! since 1936 at Josephtown smelter, where the source of zinc vapor is a column of coke and zinc-bearing sinter electrically heated (charge resistor). Condenser output when supplied with vapor-gas mixtures containing approximately 45 per cent zinc and 55 per cent noncondensable gases, varies from 18 to 30 tons of slab zinc per day per condenser, depending upon the heat-transfer area (length) of the condenser and the volume of vapor (furnace size) fed to it. Lead-smelting operations at the St. Joseph Lead Company&apos;s plant at Hercu-laneum, Mo., produce a slag containing 12 to 16 per cent zinc. For several years this slag has been stock-piled with the object of recovering the zinc values if and when a commercial method was invented. Evaluation of the possibilities of the proposed method was made by pilot-plant operation at Josephtown. The first plant, designed in 1940 and operated in early 1941, consisted of a single-phase, two-electrode furnace. The evolved vapors were burned. Electrical characteiistics of the molten slag, power requirements, coke requirements, and extent of zinc elimination indicated the feasibility of the proposed method. In the latter part of 1941 a second pilot furnace was constructed, to which "was attached a small (6 ft. long) Weaton-Najarian condenser in order to develop an over-all picture of zinc-in-slag to zinc-in-slabs. This furnace was operated in the early part of 1942 and yielded such promising results that a decision was made to design- and construct a commercial furnace. Feed for the pilot-plant furnaces was granulated slag. A suitable deduction (300 to 350 kw-hr. per ton slag) was calculated in estimating power require-

Jan 1, 1944

By Herman Garlichs

The development of the extensive Southeast Missouri deposits greatly preceded that of the Iowa and Wisconsin deposits. It began about 1720 at Mine La Motte and other localities, and has continued uninterruptedly to the present time. It is estimated that this district produced about 184,000 tons of lead in the year 1916, having a value of approximately $25,000,000. This is a new high record. The Southwest Missouri orebodies were hardly known before 1845 and were not extensively developed until 1870. Lead production in Southwest Missouri for 1916 was 38,788 tons. Oklahoma produced 14,399 tons and Kansas 2,345 tons, making a total for Southwest Missouri, and the adjoining districts in Oklahoma and Kansas, of 55,532 tons of lead. The first metallurgists in Missouri were the Indian and the hunter. The early settler learned to procure his bullets either by melting ore in his camp fire or by throwing pieces of galena on an old stump and depending on the usual roasting and reaction method to obtain the metal. A little more refined method was to arrange two flat stones in the form of a, V. Wood and galena were placed in the furnace and ignited.. As heat developed, some of the metal was extracted and molded into bullets. The next step in utilizing the lead ores was the log hearth. All lead in Missouri was smelted in this crude affair before 1820. It was built on sloping ground, and consisted of a hearth of stone, surrounded on the front and two sides by a stone wall. The wall was 7 it. high in front. The top and rear end were left open and in front an arch or opening was made, forming the eye of the furnace. In front of this a pit was dug in the ground, to receive the molten metal. Large logs were rolled in at the back and made to rest upon ledges formed inside, to raise them from the hearth and to give a draft. These logs filled the entire width of the furnace. Small split logs were then set up around the two sides and the front, and the ore was piled on until the furnace was full. Finally, the mass was covered with logs and fuel until the ore was completely surrounded. A gentle heat was started, which was raised very gradually. After 12 hr. the heat was increased and continued for 12 hr. more, 24 hr. being required for each smelting. The furnace treated about 5,000 lb. per 24 hr. and the ore yielded about 50 per cent. of its metallic lead. A considerable quantity of the ore was not desulphurized, and fell between

Jan 1, 1918

By Herman Garlichs

THE development of the extensive Southeast Missouri deposits greatly preceded that of the Iowa and Wisconsin deposits. It began about 1720 at Mine La Motte and other localities, and has continued uninterruptedly to the present time. It is estimated that this district produced about 184,000 tons of lead in the year 1916, having a value of approximately, $25,000,000. This is a new high record. The Southwest Missouri orebodies were hardly known before 1845 and were not extensively developed until 1870: Lead production in South-west Missouri for 1916 was 38,788 tons. Oklahoma produced 14,399 ,tons and Kansas 2,345 tons, making a total for Southwest Missouri, and the adjoining districts in Oklahoma and Kansas, of 55,532 tons of lead. The first metallurgists in Missouri were the Indian and the hunter. The early settler learned to procure his bullets either by melting ore in his camp fire or by throwing pieces of galena on an old stump and depending on the usual roasting and reaction method to obtain the metal. A little more refined method was to arrange two flat stones in the form of a V. Wood and galena were placed in the furnace and ignited. As heat developed, some of the metal was extracted and molded into bullets. The next step in utilizing the lead ores was the log hearth. All lead in Missouri was smelted in this crude affair before 1820. It was built on sloping ground, and consisted of a hearth of stone, surrounded on the front and two sides by a stone wall. The wall was 7 ft. high in front. The top and rear end were left open and in front an arch or opening was made, forming the eye of the furnace. In front of this a pit was dug in the ground, to receive the molten metal. Large logs were rolled in at the back and made to rest upon ledges formed inside, to raise them from the hearth and to give a draft. These logs filled the entire width of the furnace. Small split logs were then set up around the two sides and the front, and the ore was piled on until the furnace was full. Finally, the mass was covered with logs and fuel until the ore was completely surrounded. A gentle heat was started, which was raised very gradually. After 12 hr. the heat was increased and continued for 12 hr. more, 24 hr. being required, for each smelting. The furnace treated about 5,000 lb. per 24 hr. and the ore yielded about 50 per cent. of its metallic lead. A considerable quantity of the ore was not desulphurized, and fell between

Jan 7, 1917

By G. W. Imholz

The effect of new discoveries and development of other pools recently discovered is reflected in the increase in production from 586,000 bbl. during 1940 to 758,000 bbl. during 1941 in Coleman County. The States Oil Company&apos;s No. I Hudson, Coleman County, was the discovery well of the Silver field, with a total depth of 3540 ft.; initial production, 10,000,000 cu. ft. of dry gas and 60 bbl. of oil per day from the Gray sand, topped at 3482 ft. The first well drilled in the new Jim Ned field was the Merry Bros. and Perini No. I Greer, also in Coleman County. It had a total depth of 3937 ft. and an initial production of 152 bbl. of 42" gravity oil in 6 hr., through I-in. choke, from Gray sand encountered from 3909 to 3937 feet. J. E. Farrell&apos;s No. I Rose, Haskell County, was a new discovery, around which no additional wells have been drilled. Total depth was 3002 ft., plugged back to 2780 ft. to test an oil sand encountered from 2663 to 2685 ft., which when perforated with 76 shots at that depth was good for 85 bbl. of 40" gravity oil. In Fisher County, General Crude drilled its No. 12 Flanagan to a total depth of 6746 ft. After plugging back to 4578 ft. to test a sand encountered from 4515 to 4528 ft. it was abandoned as a dry hole. The top of the Ellenburger was reported as 6094 feet. Interest in Jones County continued unabated, largely through the development of the Wimberly pool in the southern part of the county, where five Cisco sands are producing. At present the pool has been defined on the south and the southwest. The structure has 170 ft. of closure; the lower limestone pays producing on top of the structure and the fist pay encountered, the Akard sand, producing on the flanks of the structure. Five deep wells were drilled in Stonewall County (H. and T.C. survey)—the Shell Oil Company&apos;s No. I-A Patterson, in block D, with a total depth of 6827 ft., dry and abandoned; the Shell Oil Company&apos;s No. I Rutherford, block I, with a total depth of 6239 ft., dry and abandoned; the Leader Oil Company&apos;s No. I Bilberry, block D, with a total depth of 5700 ft., dry and abandoned; Forest Development Company&apos;s No. 2 Boyd, block D, with a total depth of 4753 ft., dry and abandoned; and the Hunter et al. No. I Boyd, block D, total depth 4757 ft., dry and abandoned. J. E. Farrell drilled his No. I Tipton south of a well that produced from a Strawn sand for some time, to a total depth of 5202 ft., where it was abandoned. The well is in the southwest corner of sec. 43, block 19, T. and P. survey, Nolan County.

Jan 1, 1942

By G. W. Imholz

The effect of new discoveries and development of other pools recently discovered is reflected in the increase in production from 586,000 bbl. during 1940 to 758,000 bbl. during 1941 in Coleman County. The States Oil Company&apos;s No. I Hudson, Coleman County, was the discovery well of the Silver field, with a total depth of 3540 ft.; initial production, 10,000,000 cu. ft. of dry gas and 60 bbl. of oil per day from the Gray sand, topped at 3482 ft. The first well drilled in the new Jim Ned field was the Merry Bros. and Perini No. I Greer, also in Coleman County. It had a total depth of 3937 ft. and an initial production of 152 bbl. of 42" gravity oil in 6 hr., through I-in. choke, from Gray sand encountered from 3909 to 3937 feet. J. E. Farrell&apos;s No. I Rose, Haskell County, was a new discovery, around which no additional wells have been drilled. Total depth was 3002 ft., plugged back to 2780 ft. to test an oil sand encountered from 2663 to 2685 ft., which when perforated with 76 shots at that depth was good for 85 bbl. of 40" gravity oil. In Fisher County, General Crude drilled its No. 12 Flanagan to a total depth of 6746 ft. After plugging back to 4578 ft. to test a sand encountered from 4515 to 4528 ft. it was abandoned as a dry hole. The top of the Ellenburger was reported as 6094 feet. Interest in Jones County continued unabated, largely through the development of the Wimberly pool in the southern part of the county, where five Cisco sands are producing. At present the pool has been defined on the south and the southwest. The structure has 170 ft. of closure; the lower limestone pays producing on top of the structure and the fist pay encountered, the Akard sand, producing on the flanks of the structure. Five deep wells were drilled in Stonewall County (H. and T.C. survey)—the Shell Oil Company&apos;s No. I-A Patterson, in block D, with a total depth of 6827 ft., dry and abandoned; the Shell Oil Company&apos;s No. I Rutherford, block I, with a total depth of 6239 ft., dry and abandoned; the Leader Oil Company&apos;s No. I Bilberry, block D, with a total depth of 5700 ft., dry and abandoned; Forest Development Company&apos;s No. 2 Boyd, block D, with a total depth of 4753 ft., dry and abandoned; and the Hunter et al. No. I Boyd, block D, total depth 4757 ft., dry and abandoned. J. E. Farrell drilled his No. I Tipton south of a well that produced from a Strawn sand for some time, to a total depth of 5202 ft., where it was abandoned. The well is in the southwest corner of sec. 43, block 19, T. and P. survey, Nolan County.

Jan 1, 1942

By W. K. Tony Seiler

Further development of mechanical boring machines for hard and abrasive rocks will be effected by the development of more efficient rock cutting tools or the evolution of entirely new rock excavating principles. Presently the cutting tools suitable for extremely hard rocks and successfully and economically used with raise and tunnel boring machines are tungsten carbide insert big hole cutters. This paper explains the design, rock cutting principles, and actual boring operations to illustrate the capabilities and applications of tungsten carbide (TC) insert cutters. While the rate of borehole advance may fall short of the rapid excavating results achieved with soft rock boring machines, the cutter described in this paper may prove to be the most suitable tool in hard rock excavation for many years to come. DEFINITION OF HARD ROCK Existing bored excavations in hard abrasive rocks are proof of the economic application of new methods and mechanical rock boring in the mining industry. Most of the experience in cutting hard to extremely hard rocks has been gained in raise boring where relatively short and small diameter openings are bored. This poses a lesser risk regarding cutter cost than a long and large diameter tunnel and has therefore promoted the testing of various cutter products. Many types of rocks and geologic conditions were en- countered and actual test data was recorded in materials of up to 100,000 psi uniaxial compressive strength. To clarify the term hard to extremely hard, a 1970 interpretation of rock strength which was recently used is adopted and expanded in this paper.

Jan 1, 1971

By Basil B. Zavoico

The World War I1 spread to Russia on June 22, 1941, when the German Armies began their invasion. The Soviet industries, which were already engaged in a tremendous armament program, further accelerated the flow of munitions, and equipment and supplies for all purposes not directly military were either entirely eliminated or reduced to an absolute minimum. With the occupation by German armies of the Dniepr and Kharkov industrial regions, this trend was necessarily further accentuated. The oil industry of Russia, in consequence, was left to rely more and more upon itself, its own very limited manufacturing facilities, extensive repair shops and probably much used equipment out of order stacked in the warehouses. All evidence available to date points to the fact that the new situation not only did not affect the production either quantitatively or qualitatively, but, on the contrary, caused a larger flow of much needed fuels to the country&apos;s war machine, primarily by renaissance of both management and labor. The oil industry of the Soviet Union, left to depend entirely upon itself for equip ment and supplies, and even for new workers and technicians to replace those called into the services, did and is still doing a good and effective job. Since it could not hope for new equipment and parts and could not blame any other industry for the delays in delivery, it dragged out old machines from storage and repaired them in its own machine shops. Often such stored and used equipment was but slightly defective, waiting for some small part from factories in Central Russia, plants that now were either in German hands or entirely converted to the manufacture of munitions. More particularly, instead of the pipe that could not be taken to the Caucasus from Central Russia, casing reclaimed from abandoned or submarginal wells was used, or pipe from the abandoned or but slightly used pipe lines; and this practice is being continued even now on a large scale, to create an ample reserve for the duration of the conflict. Indirectly such a development was even an improvement on pre-war days, when many wells about to be completed had to wait for weeks, even months, for the arrival of new pipe, all blame then being placed outside of the industry on the factories in Central Russia. For the purpose of reclaiming equipment and pipe still usable, special crews were organized. The war also caused much quicker adaptation of certain American practices and introduction of many emergency measures, such as: removal of derricks upon completion of wells and the use of drilling equipment mounted on skids for rapid transfer from location to location—both of these practices, while standard in the U.S.A., being new in Russia; installation of simplified surface pumping units; substitution of wooden bearings in the surface pump equipment; completion of wells in the Ural-Volga district, where formations are hard and tight throughout the sedimentary column, without either casing or

Jan 1, 1942

By Herbert H. Kellogg

Deposits of high-silica kaolinite clays occur at many places in central Pennsylvania. These white clays were formed apparently by weathering of argillaceous quartzite and limestone. Their geology, distribution and use have been reported by Leighton.1 The larger deposits have been mined from time to time, and the clay, after washing to remove coarse sand, has found use as rubber filler, foundry clay, and in white cements. In general, the clay from these deposits contains too much grit (quartz) to be useful as paper filler, and the silica content is too high to make it useful as china clay for ceramic ware. Gravity methods for the separation of quartz from these clays have failed because of the extremely fine size of the quartz grains, but by the methods of froth flotation described in this paper these sandy kaolins can be made to yield a purified kaolinite that has a chemical composition close to that of good-grade Georgia kaolins, and is free enough from grit to be used as a paper filler. As by-products of the separation, a fine ( — 325-mesh) sand assaying 95.5 per cent SiO2, and a very fine (—3-micron) clay are produced. The possible ceramic uses of these products are being investigated at The Pennsylvania State College. Experimental Procedure The Sample.—The clay sample used in these tests was obtained from a small mine near Tyrone, Pa. It had already been washed to remove coarse sand, and represented the finished product of this small mine and washery. Microscopic examination showed that the clay was composed almost entirely of the minerals quartz and kaolinite, and that the quartz was present mostly in particles larger than one micron, while the kaolinite particles generally were less than 20 microns in size. The kaolinite and quartz particles were physically separable by blunging the clay in water with a suitable dispersant. Preparation of Flotalion Feed.—By the addition of NaOH in an amount equal to 3 lb. per ton of solids, the clay was completely dispersed in water. Flotation feed was prepared by allowing a dispersed suspension (10 per cent solids) of the clay to stand for the period of time required for a 2.5-micron particle of quartz to settle from the top of the container to the bottom. After this settling period the suspension was decanted from the settled solids. The settled solids were redispersed in water and the separation was repeated once. The two fine fractions were then combined. Thus the clay was divided into a fine and a coarse fraction by size separation at approximately 2.5 microns.* The fine frac- . tion was found to have a considerably lower sand content than the raw clay (Table I), and was not treated further. The coarse fraction formed the flotation feed for all the tests described in this paper. A size separation of this type can be

Jan 1, 1948

By Herbert H. Kellogg

Deposits of high-silica kaolinite clays occur at many places in central Pennsylvania. These white clays were formed apparently by weathering of argillaceous quartzite and limestone. Their geology, distribution and use have been reported by Leighton.1 The larger deposits have been mined from time to time, and the clay, after washing to remove coarse sand, has found use as rubber filler, foundry clay, and in white cements. In general, the clay from these deposits contains too much grit (quartz) to be useful as paper filler, and the silica content is too high to make it useful as china clay for ceramic ware. Gravity methods for the separation of quartz from these clays have failed because of the extremely fine size of the quartz grains, but by the methods of froth flotation described in this paper these sandy kaolins can be made to yield a purified kaolinite that has a chemical composition close to that of good-grade Georgia kaolins, and is free enough from grit to be used as a paper filler. As by-products of the separation, a fine ( — 325-mesh) sand assaying 95.5 per cent SiO2, and a very fine (—3-micron) clay are produced. The possible ceramic uses of these products are being investigated at The Pennsylvania State College. Experimental Procedure The Sample.—The clay sample used in these tests was obtained from a small mine near Tyrone, Pa. It had already been washed to remove coarse sand, and represented the finished product of this small mine and washery. Microscopic examination showed that the clay was composed almost entirely of the minerals quartz and kaolinite, and that the quartz was present mostly in particles larger than one micron, while the kaolinite particles generally were less than 20 microns in size. The kaolinite and quartz particles were physically separable by blunging the clay in water with a suitable dispersant. Preparation of Flotalion Feed.—By the addition of NaOH in an amount equal to 3 lb. per ton of solids, the clay was completely dispersed in water. Flotation feed was prepared by allowing a dispersed suspension (10 per cent solids) of the clay to stand for the period of time required for a 2.5-micron particle of quartz to settle from the top of the container to the bottom. After this settling period the suspension was decanted from the settled solids. The settled solids were redispersed in water and the separation was repeated once. The two fine fractions were then combined. Thus the clay was divided into a fine and a coarse fraction by size separation at approximately 2.5 microns.* The fine frac- . tion was found to have a considerably lower sand content than the raw clay (Table I), and was not treated further. The coarse fraction formed the flotation feed for all the tests described in this paper. A size separation of this type can be

Jan 1, 1948

By Basil B. Zavoico

The World War I1 spread to Russia on June 22, 1941, when the German Armies began their invasion. The Soviet industries, which were already engaged in a tremendous armament program, further accelerated the flow of munitions, and equipment and supplies for all purposes not directly military were either entirely eliminated or reduced to an absolute minimum. With the occupation by German armies of the Dniepr and Kharkov industrial regions, this trend was necessarily further accentuated. The oil industry of Russia, in consequence, was left to rely more and more upon itself, its own very limited manufacturing facilities, extensive repair shops and probably much used equipment out of order stacked in the warehouses. All evidence available to date points to the fact that the new situation not only did not affect the production either quantitatively or qualitatively, but, on the contrary, caused a larger flow of much needed fuels to the country&apos;s war machine, primarily by renaissance of both management and labor. The oil industry of the Soviet Union, left to depend entirely upon itself for equip ment and supplies, and even for new workers and technicians to replace those called into the services, did and is still doing a good and effective job. Since it could not hope for new equipment and parts and could not blame any other industry for the delays in delivery, it dragged out old machines from storage and repaired them in its own machine shops. Often such stored and used equipment was but slightly defective, waiting for some small part from factories in Central Russia, plants that now were either in German hands or entirely converted to the manufacture of munitions. More particularly, instead of the pipe that could not be taken to the Caucasus from Central Russia, casing reclaimed from abandoned or submarginal wells was used, or pipe from the abandoned or but slightly used pipe lines; and this practice is being continued even now on a large scale, to create an ample reserve for the duration of the conflict. Indirectly such a development was even an improvement on pre-war days, when many wells about to be completed had to wait for weeks, even months, for the arrival of new pipe, all blame then being placed outside of the industry on the factories in Central Russia. For the purpose of reclaiming equipment and pipe still usable, special crews were organized. The war also caused much quicker adaptation of certain American practices and introduction of many emergency measures, such as: removal of derricks upon completion of wells and the use of drilling equipment mounted on skids for rapid transfer from location to location—both of these practices, while standard in the U.S.A., being new in Russia; installation of simplified surface pumping units; substitution of wooden bearings in the surface pump equipment; completion of wells in the Ural-Volga district, where formations are hard and tight throughout the sedimentary column, without either casing or

Jan 1, 1942

By Don M. Jackson

The techniques for the growth and controlled, graded doping of silicon epitaxial overgrowth layers were established. Grading of- impurities such as arsenic or boron in arbitrarily chosen profiles oiler four orders of magnitude (from I X 10Lg to 1 X 10L5 cm) was accomplished. The graded structures were grown in a stepwise manner where in the profiles were approximated by growing many separate layers with small doping-level changes between layers. Masked-area growth of silicon through windows in a SiO2 masking film was acconiplished through the simultaneous injection of HCl gas 102th Sic14 in the epitaxial reactor. The HCl served to inhihit the growth of silicon on the Sz02 surface, and also to control the cross-sectional profile of the silicon mesas. silicon from the substrate was etched out through the windows, and then epitaxial material was used to fill the holes hack in to form planar diodes. Simullaneous HCl injection was adapted to control the cross-section profile of the hack-filled regions. Arsenic-huried regions beneath in te- In recent months, the epitaxial growth process in semiconductor materials technology has evolved into a complex system directed at both material improvement for better monolithic integrated-circuit characteristics and the development of new silicon structures for future integrated-circuit needs. The advent of high-temperature HC1 gas etching1 grated-circuit transistors reduced V(SAT) by slightly more than one third, bringing this parame-ter to that of an isolated component transistor. When arsenic was diffused into the starting sub-stvate, it was necessary to remove any excess arsenic in order to avoid excessive audodoping of the subsequent epitaxial layer. Oxide isolation of single-crystal regions in a substrate provided complete electrical isolation of integrated-circuit components, thereby eliminating parasitic capacitance which is inherent in standard integrated-circuit processing. The process involved the etching of deep mesas on silicon Wafers, the formation of an oxide over the mesa surface, and then the deposition of several mils of polycrystalline silicon over the oxide. The original substrate was lapped and polished allay until the mesas were left isolated in the polycrys-talline matrix. The Final components were fabri-cated in the single-crystal islands. Speed and power-handling capabilities of standard circuits were improved through the process. wherein work-damaged material is removed from the surface of the silicon wafer just prior to the silicon deposition step has made it possible to grow silicon films with structural quality that approaches that of the substrate. HBr used in the same volume ratio as HC1 etches silicon at the same rate and with the same results as HC1. Recent developments in epitaxial materials technology have occurred in the areas of precise doping control, buried prediffused regions between over-

Jan 1, 1965

• The Venezuelan Trade Mission to the United States announced that Bethlehem Steel Corp. will begin exporting iron ore from its El Pao concession, south of the Orinoco River in Venezuela, in about three months. The ore will be transported by rail from the mines to barges on the Orinoco and transshipped to ore vessels at the coast for shipment to the Sparrows Point, Md., plant. The Latin American business men warned that projected increases in the United States tariff on petroleum imports from Venezuela would force that country into bilateral trade agreements with other countries and would mean drastic curtailment of Venezuelan imports from this country. •Bethlehem, South American Gold and Platinum Co., and U. S. Steel are investigating the possibilities of securing American foodstuff for their South American mining camp commissaries through the International Basic Economy Corp. IBEC buys in quantity to supply its subsidiary companies operating in Venezuela and Brazil. The mining companies will rid themselves of this burdensome task as well as realizing a saving from the bulk purchases of IBEC. •Oliver Iron Mining Co. has begun construction of a fine ore and taconite agglomeration plant at Virginia, Minn. It is expected to be ready in six months. The plant will be used to experiment with the making of clinker cakes and egg-sized lumps by sintering machines and nodulizing kilns respectively; about 1 million tons per year will be produced. • Roof pinning has been adopted at the iron mines of TCI, near Birmingham, to support overlying strata as mining progresses. Favorable results have been obtained in that dilution of the ore has been reduced by 50% which is attributable to this method of supporting the roof. •An American mining engineering team has gone to Turkey for a two-year assignment assisting Turkish government agencies in the $45 million ECA development, mechanization, and construction of cleaning plants for the Zonguldak coal field, 200 miles east of Istanbul on the Black Sea. The group consists of James Beeley, John E. Good, John S. Lambright, David Renshaw, and Charles R. Weir, all of the Paul Weir Co. •Arthur F. Taggart describes a new way of training engineers by emphasis on broad, basic engineering courses on page 460 of this issue. •Lawrence T. Tierney, chairman of the National Bituminous Coal Advisory Council, released a report stating that the increase in oil imports since the latter part of 194$ has caused significant damage to the U. S. fuel economy. It has reduced the strength of and employment opportunities in the coal, domestic petroleum, and transportation industries, as well as in related service and supplier fields. •Women, camels, and donkeys are the beasts of burden of the Sahara, according-to the UNESCO World Review. •Increased demand for magnesium sheet in airplane construction ana other phases of the national security program have led Alcoa to establish a sheet magnesium rolling division at its New Kensington, Pa., works which will begin operation shortly. Novel prospecting methods being used by the USGS in its search for uranium include: shock-mounted instruments in light trucks,. Geiger-counter probes lowered into augur holes, and experimental airborne prospecting.

Jan 4, 1950

By R. B. Schluter, M. M. Fine

The Bureau of Mines&apos; Twin Cities Metallurgy Research Center has of late concerned itself with reduction-induration of iron ore. One development provided a flowsheet for the agglomeration of green concentrate pellets in a reducing atmosphere created by a solid reductant external to the agglomerate. The product pellets were well metallized and physically competent. Maximum recommended operating temperature was 2100º F. In these studies, it was observed that unflred iron ore pellets indurated in a bed of anthracite or certain lignite chars frequently acquired exceptional crushing strength. A diagnosis of the phenomenon revealed that sulfur in the fuel was the probable cause. Accordingly, a research program was established to test this premise and to put it to practical use. Gaseous reductants were employed initially because of the ease and accuracy with which they could be metered.

Jan 10, 1969