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By J. L. Gillson

Andre Hubaux: In the writer's opinion, more stress should be put on field and microscope observations, as J. L. Gillson does. His discovery of relics of big labra-dorite feldspars from the Marcy anorthosite in all the other rocks is proof enough that previous field observations have been inadequate. The writer's field experience with anorthositie massifs is limited to the Egersund-Sogndal district in southern Norway; however, this is a very large and well exposed area. It seems to have so many points in common with the Adirondack region that a detailed comparison should be beneficial. This comparison was not possible 20 years ago, owing to the scarcity of geological data, at least for Norway. Both regions are now far better known—the Norway district because of the work of Professors Bugge and Barth 33-35 and especially because of the extensive field and microscopic research of P. Michot,30-35 who introduced me in the field to the problems of that region. In a particular unit of the Egersund district, a sodi-fication of the plagioclase, very similar to what Gillson calls "andesinization," has taken place. 12' The percentage of anorthite in the plagioclase has dropped from 42 to 43 pct in the original norite down to 27 pct, but never below that level. This metasomatical transformation is a part of a whole series of processes of mig-matitization which have produced, above the level of granitization, concentrations of Mg, Fe, and Ti and among them, patches and parallel bands of ilmenite and magnetite. Thus both regions present somewhat comparable features and the theories to explain them have several points in common. However, as there seem to be differences between some American conceptions and the views commonly accepted at the University of Liege, I would like to make some comments about J. L. Gill-son's article. The author speaks of the garnet as being an anti-stress mineral. However, garnet may be found in schists, where its helicitic texture, when present, demonstrates its formation during differential movement. Furthermore, the whole concept of stress and anti-

Jan 1, 1959

By J. M. Lommel, B. Chalmers

The transfer of material from the solid to the liquid states can be accomplished in several ways. It occurs by the application of heat in the more familiar metallurgical operations of melting but it can also be accomplished by solution in a liquid, as can occur in systems using liquid metals for heat-transfer media. The kinetics of this reaction were studied to learn more of the separate steps in the process. In the case of a pure material at its melting temperature, Te,A,, thermal energy must be supplied to the solid in an amount equal to the latent heat of fusion in order for the solid-to-liquid transfer to occur. The rate at which heat is supplied, and hence the rate of melting, is a function of the temperature gradients in the system. This phase transfer can also occur in the absence of temperature gradients in the system illustrated in Fig. 1, which is a partial phase diagram between the components A and B. A solid of composition CI will

Jan 1, 1960

By A. J. Brown

I HEREWITH send to the Institute a sample of Pancake coal. It is rather early yet to make any estimate of the future value of the discovery; but it is certainly the most promising vein of coal yet discovered in the State of Nevada, and, I believe, the first true coal found west of the Rocky Mountains, or perhaps west of the Missouri River, unless some of the Utah coals belong to the coal measures of the Carboniferous age. The Pancake vein certainly belongs

Jan 1, 1875

By F. P. Dewey

Rich Hill is situated in the famous car-wheel iron region of Southwestern Virginia, and although it contains many iron ores, this paper will be devoted chiefly to its car-wheel ore. Geologically, Rich Hill is somewhat difficult to describe, as the strata of the region are seriously folded and contorted. It lies at the base of one of the primordial spurs of the Blue Ridge, the ore appearing as a sedimentary deposit on the limestone No. 2, sometimes showing an imperfect stratification, but generally being an

Jan 1, 1882

By F. P. Dewey

RICH HILL is situated in the famous car-wheel iron region of Southwestern Virginia, and although it contains many iron ores, this paper will be devoted chiefly to its car-wheel ore. Geologically, Rich Hill is somewhat difficult to describe, as the strata of the region are seriously folded and contorted. It lies at the base of one of the primordial spurs of the Blue Ridge, the ore appearing as a sedimentary deposit on the limestone No. 2, sometimes showing an imperfect stratification, but generally being an

Jan 1, 1882

By L. T. Larson, P. M. Basinski

In the northern Reese River Valley uranium is corroded with Middle Pliocene zeolites. These zeolites were diagenetically derived from rhyolitic volcanic glass deposited in a saline- alkaline lake. X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and chemical studies reveal clinoptilolite, analcime, and enonite to be pesent and that these minerals can concentrate at least 0.7% uranium from solution. Most anomalous drill cuttings contain zeolite and zeolites are believed to host the uranium. Research suggests the uranium mineralization is conceptually analogous to the Tono mine, Japan.

Jan 1, 1981

By Orville R. Lyons, A. C. Richardson

Operating data is presented for a Bird centrifuge used to dewater coal treated at one preparation plant. The data include: (1 ) percentages of solids in centrifuge feed, cake, and effluent and the plant circulating water for a period of four consecutive operating shifts, and (2) screen-sizing data for a number of centrifuge feed, cake; effluent, and combined cake-effluent samples. An evaluation is included of the relationships between fine solids in the centrifuge feed and the total moisture content of the centrifuge cake.

Jan 3, 1950

By J. G. Davis, P. C. Thakur

Hazardous methane gas in coal mining is receiving increased attention due to the increased US demand for coal which has resulted in the exploitation of deeper seams and the utilization of more productive equipment. Problems posed by methane emission has the Mining Research Division of Continental Oil Co. (Conoco) accelerating efforts that began in the early 1950's with Consolidation Coal Co. (Consol).1 The program's focus is on finding new techniques for degasification of virgin areas as well as control of methane in gob areas.

Jan 10, 1977

By Orville R. Lyons

THE continuous vacuum filter, whether it be a vertical or horizontal disk, inside or outside drum, when properly applied is a very effective device for dewatering fine solids. Because of the number of variables that affect its performance, however, it is not possible to obtain consistently maximum moisture reduction in an operating plant. This paper presents a method for determining the average cake moisture and the variations in cake moisture to be anticipated when dewatering fine solids by continuous vacuum filters under normal operating conditions.

Jan 10, 1951

By D. Hodouin, T. Gelpe

A digital simulator of classification and grinding circuits is used to evaluate the performance of various flowsheets. For a given flows he et configuration, unit process dimensions, and operating conditions, the simulator calculates the steady-state values of the process variables and determines the conditions that meet the required operation criteria for tonnage and product quality. Calculation examples are proposed for the design of wet and dry grinding circuits. The performance of different configurations of cement clinker and sulfide ore grinding flowsheets is evaluated and discussed.

Jan 1, 1986

By Edward Keller

(Canal Zone Meeting, November, 1910.) UNDER the title, Labor-Saving Appliances in the Works-Laboratory, I published a paper1 in which was described how multi-manipulations, in a works-laboratory, and in the furnace-room of an assay-laboratory, can be condensed into single manipulations by applying the proper mechanical devices. For example, I now deposit in, or withdraw from, a muffle a set of 48 cupels as one unit. The front row. (8) of these. are blanks or heaters; the other 40, when they have attained the proper temperature in the muffle, are charged simultaneously with the 40 lead-buttons. Three manipulations here accomplish an operation which by the generally customary method requires 136, and this number is only limited by the size of muffle and cupels. This operation is an enlargement of what I have already described in my former paper, and Fig. I shows the improved implements. In the paper referred to I described a gold-silver bead parting-bath, which is the last of the devices used in regular sequence in practice. This bath was designated as being convenient, but was not a labor-saver properly. Fig. 2 of the present paper shows a new device. Instead of the original tray, there are now sectional holders for the test-tubes, each having a wooden handle on either end, so that the holders may be removed from the boiling bath, and the acid or water poured off from each set of tubes (in this case, 7) without waiting to cool. The tubes, held in place by clutches, as shown in Fig. 3, rest in holes in the base-strip, having a smaller diameter than the tubes. Each holder is stamped at either end with a number, so that the bath becomes further useful by permitting several men to use it at the same time without interference. Apart from the handles, the holders are made of sheet-copper. ' Trans., xxxvi., 3 to 18 (1906).

Aug 1, 1910

By Paul D. Merica, L. J. Gurevich

In connection with other investigations on the properties and characteristics of chilled-iron car wheels, the question as to the best range of annealing temperatures was raised. Chilled-iron wheels are cast with a chill against the tread and the inside of the flange, the remainder being in sand. The composition of the metal is so chosen that under these conditions the trcad and inside of the flange will show white iron to a depth of from 5/8 to in. (15 to 22 mm.), the remainder of the wheel becoming graph itized or gray. In order to relieve the stresses set up during cooling under such drastic conditions, the wheels are stripped from the mold, while still red hot, piled in a soaking pit, and allowed to cool very slowly from their temperature at stripping. Obviously the most suitable temperature for this annealing is the highest at which no formation of graphite occurs within the white tread and at which the wheels can be stripped from the molds. Inasmuch as no direct determinations have been made of the temperatures at which the formation of graphite takes place in white iron of compositions used in car wheels upon annealing, it was considered worth while to determine these temperatures as a means of establishing the maximum temperatures at which the annealing of the wheels may be carried out. In the course of this work, some incidental observations were made which are of interest in connection with the theory of graphitization in whitc iron. The literature on the subject of the formation of graphite both during cooling at casting and upon annealing is very extensive and can be best studied by reference to a comprehensive discussion of the subject by Hatfie1d.l Perhaps the most important contributions of previous investigation are the following: 1. Whether a given mass of molten iron becomes white, mottled, or gay upon casting, depends on its composition and its rate of cooling through the temperature range of solidification and immediately below. 2. The more rapid the rate of cooling, the less is the extent of graphitization.

Jan 1, 1920

Papers in Classes A-Metal Mining, B-Milling and Concentration, H-Industrial Minerals, and I-Mining Geology are distributed in MINING TECHNOLOGY, which is issued every Other month. Papers in Classes C-Iron and Steel Division, D-Nonferrous Metallurgy and E-Institute Of Metals Division are distributed in METALS TECHNOLOGY, which is issued twice quarterly. Papers in Class G-Petroleum Division are distributed in PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY, which is issued every Other month. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS in Classes F-Coal Division, J-Mineral Industry Education Division, K-Mining Administration, and L-Geophysics, are issued as separate pamphlets. Contributions are papers that when printed Or mimeographed are available, but Only On request. All the TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS Of the F, J, K Or L classes, the TECHNOLOGYS and the CONTRIBUTIONS issued in 1945 are available at Institute headquarters, unless Otherwise noted. They are also On file in many public, university and technical libraries and, when so indicated in the list, the papers may be found in the TRANSACTIONS. An Institute member is entitled to One copy Of any TECHNOLOGY, TECHNICAL PUBLICATION Of the F, J, K Or L classes, Or printed Or mimeographed CONTRIBUTION. Copies Of TECHNOLOGYS and TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS Of the F, J, K Or L classes listed have been mailed to members Of the Institute according to their registration by classes. CONTRIBUTIONS will he sent upon request. A member may purchase an additional copy Of a TECHNICAL PUBLICATION Of the F, J, K Or L classes, a paper in a TECHNOLOGY, Or a CONTRIBUTION at One cent a page; minimum charge, 25¢.

Jan 1, 1946

By E. D. Gardner

APPARENTLY the widespread agitation for the codification of our mining laws has had its effect, and it is quite possible that Congress will take up the question during this present session. The greatest objection to our present statutes pertaining to metalliferous deposits seems to be directed against the law of the apex. Those who are not in favor of changing this law are very far in the minority and they apparently realize that it is useless to urge its retention. Next in importance to the repeal of the law of the apex, seems to be a widespread advocacy for the repeal of the law requiring discovery of mineral before a valid location of a mining claim can be made. To a lesser extent there appears to be a desire to have the law changed so as to allow patent for claims without mineral discoveries. The purpose of this article is to review the arguments in favor of the proposed change of the discovery requirement, to show some of the evils that may be expected to result therefrom, and to consider whether a system may be devised to correct the undesirable features of the present law in this respect and at the same time not expose the mining fraternity and the general public to the evils which would result from the repeal of this fundamental requirement. Under the law as at present framed, the validity of a mining location is dependent upon the fact of discovery of mineral within the boundaries of the land claimed.

Jan 9, 1916

By R. C. Craze

During the past 20 years. research and development in the study of reservoir behavior have dealt principally with flow of oil through sandstones. Many reservoir studies of sand fields have proved valuable in promoting recovery efficiency. This paper discusses fundamental principles governing oil and gas production from sandstone and limestone alike and presents the results of investigations relating to the application of analytical techniques used for sandstone reservoir studies to the study of limestone reservoir performance. The characteristics of limestone porous systems, porosity-permeability relationships, distribution and occurrence of oil, and characteristics of flow through such systems are discussed. Recognition is made of the similarities or differences which these factors exhibit in limestone and sandstone systems. Comparisons between operating data for typical limestone and sand reservoirs are presented. It is indicated that the distribution and movement of fluids in and through porous limestones follow the same fundamental principles underlying such processes in sandstones. This fundamental similarity may readily be discernible in the performance of many limestone reservoirs. The volumetric balance and unsteady state radial flow equation, the fluid displacement equation, use of electrical analogue devices, and other analytical techniques to study the behavior of limestone fields appear fundamentally applicable, but do require thorough understanding of the properties of the formation, of the fluids, their behavior during flow, and adequate production operating data. Need for more complete coring and comprehensive examination of core properties is stressed. The results of "active oil" studies, and of flow and interference tests are presented. Well spacing, well completion, and efficient rates of production in limestone reservoirs are briefly discussed. INTRODUCTION Limestone and dolomite reservoirs constitute the largest source of supply of crude oil in the world. an estimated 60 per cent of present production coming from carbonate reservoirs. In many large geologic provinces such as Mexico. the Middle East, and more recently Canada, almost all the oil is found in this type of rock. In the United States, all of the major oil-producing areas except California and Pennsylvania contain oil-bearing carbonate formations. The discovery in recent years of large oil reserves in the Silurian, Devonian, and Ordo-vician formations in West Texas, in addition to the large reserves in the Permian, has accentuated the interest of operators, geologists, and engineers in limestone formations and in the many problems associated with understanding the performance of these reservoirs. The rapid increase in discovery of oil in limestone formations and the present-day position of prominence held by these fields in the production and reserve picture in all parts of the world emphasize the horizons opened to the reservoir technologist in the field of geological and production research. Pertinent to an interpretation of the behavior of limestone reservoirs are the methods of analysis which may be utilized and a possession of full knowledge of the many factors which influence the analytical procedures. During the past 20 years a well-developed science of reservoir engineering has been built upon the research of many workers who studied the fundamental nature of oil reservoirs, characteristics of the porous media, properties and behavior of the contained fluids, and the mechanics of flow. Application of these studies to production practice has resulted in greater recoveries and more efficient field operation. The major portion of this evolutionary process has been founded upon studies of sand fields. The applicability of these more thoroughly developed techniques for studying sand fields to the study of the behavior of limestone fields becomes a factor of technical and practical significance. In the light of the technological background available to the reservoir analyst, this paper discusses fundamental principles governing oil and gas production from sandstone and limestone alike and presents the results of investigations relating to the application of analytical techniques used for sandstone studies to the study of limestone reservoir performance. LIMESTONE RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS The characteristics of limestone and sandstone reservoirs are similar in many respects and they both may occur under similar structural conditions. Fundamentally, the distribution and movement of fluids in and through the porous limestone media follow the same basic principles which dictate such processes in sandstones. Herein lies a fundamental similarity, which may readily be discernible in the performance of many limestone reservoirs. In some limestone fields, as in many sand fields, widely varying formation properties and distribution may reveal themselves in deviations in the performance of the reservoir, in the behavior of wells, and in fluid flow through the rock, and make difficult the delineation of reservoir behavior. Only by reservoir studies, core analyses, and coordinated laboratory and field experimentation can the effects of the many influencing factors upon the nature of limestone production be determined. FORMATION CHARACTERISTICS The chief difference between limestone and sandstone, aside from their chemical compositions, is the difference in the geometry and origin of the porous systems in the two kinds of rock. In sandstone the porous system results entirely from the openings among individual sand grains which occur during deposition. The geometry of the openings between the sand

Jan 1, 1950

By G. St. J. Perrot, S. P. Kinney

Consumers of metallurgical coke are agreed that the quality of their fuel plays an important part in the performance of the furnace. Less unanimous agreement is evident when the properties of a desirable coke are discussed or when consideration is made of suitable testing methods by which the worth of a coke for metallurgical purposes may be determined quantitatively. Much has been written of the importance of combustibility as a factor in determining the performance of coke in the blast furnace and it is generally believed that cokes vary widely in this respect. The usual operating data of the furnace afford little evidence as to the combustibility of the fuel. As a part of a general investigation of the properties of metallurgical coke, the Bureau of Mines has explored the hearth combustion zone in a number of blast furnaces by means of water-cooled gas sampling tubes driven into the hearth through the tuyeres. The attempt has been made to determine the difference in combustibility of cokes varying widely in physical properties. Data have also been obtained in an experimental combustion furnace at the Bureau laboratories in Pittsburgh. This paper gives the results of experiments, made at eleven blast furnaces, in which the composition of the gases was determined at various points in the hearth in the plane of the tuyeres. Further work is in progress in which the zone above the tuyeres will be explored. Factors Affecting Coke Combustibility Brassertl has defined combustibility as the rate of progression of combustion, or, in other words, the speed at which the carbon molecules

Jan 1, 1923

By S. P. Kinney, G. St. J. Perrot

Consumers of metallurgical coke are agreed that the quality of their fuel plays an important part in the performance of the furnace. Less unanimous agreement is evident when the properties of a desirable coke are discussed or when consideration is made of suitable testing methods by which the worth of a coke for metallurgical purposes may be determined quantitatively. Much has been written of the importance of combustibility as a factor in determining the performance of coke in the blast furnace and it is generally believed that cokes vary widely in this respect. The usual operating data of the furnace afford little evidence as to the combustibility of the fuel. As a part of a general investigation of the properties of metallurgical coke, the Bureau of Mines has explored the hearth combustion zone in a number of blast furnaces by means of water-cooled gas sampling tubes driven into the hearth through the tuyeres. The attempt has been made to determine the difference in combustibility of cokes varying widely in physical properties. Data have also been obtained in an experimental combustion furnace at the Bureau laboratories in Pittsburgh. This paper gives the results of experiments, made at eleven blast furnaces, in which the composition of the gases was determined at various points in the hearth in the plane of the tuyeres. Further work is in progress in which the zone above the tuyeres will be explored. Factors Affecting Coke Combustibility Brassertl has defined combustibility as the rate of progression of combustion, or, in other words, the speed at which the carbon molecules

Jan 1, 1923

By M. G. Corson

INFORMATION regarding the use of manganese alloys has hitherto been incomplete and available only from widely scattered sources. This paper attempts a systematic description of properties and uses of alloys other than manganese bronze, manganin and duralumin, which are probably the only non-ferrous alloys associated with manganese in the minds of most metallurgists.1 PROPERTIES OF MANGANESE Manganese can react either acid or basic; it is hard to obtain in the pure state; it has two different crystalline lattice structures, both of the cubic system, one stable above 850° C. and the other below 650° C., both coexisting in the intermediate range. Although the commercial product is hard and brittle, the pure metal seems to be ductile. In fact Zhemchuzhny, in Russia, was able to obtain ductile manganese and draw it to fine wires by the simple expedient of adding about 3 per cent. copper to the alumino-thermic product. Copper most probably brings the silicides, aluminides, nitrides and carbides present in the commercial product into a much less harmful form of distribution. One industrial use that can be foreseen for wrought manganese articles is as anodes for electrolytic processes in sulfate and nitrate solutions, particularly with high voltages. A practically insoluble skin of manganese peroxide is likely to form in such cases and an insoluble and strong anode material will be available. MANGANESE AS A SCAVENGER Because of its activity manganese might become the most efficient scavenger and refiner of copper, were it not for the fact that 0.01 per cent.

Jan 1, 1928

By E. Teghtsoonian, K. G. Davis

Cobalt crystals of commercial purity have been tested in tension. Their resolved shear stress-shear strain curves are very similar in form to those for zinc, magnesium, and cadmium. There is an initial linear region for shear strains up to around 150 pct, the ratio of work hardening slope to shear modulus at room temperature being about 2 X x This is followed by an upturn, which is, PLASTIC deformation in metal single crystals with close-packed structures has been found strongly dependent on stacking-fault energy. The high stacking-fault energy hexagonal metals magnesium, zinc, and cadmium have been quite extensively tested, but up to now no data have been available for a comparable hexagonal metal with low stacking-fau1t energy' An however, smaller in magnitude for cobalt than for the other metals. Values for the critical resolved shear stress rise from 97 kg per sq cm at room temperature to approximately 170 kg per sq cm at -196 °C. The Cottrell-Stokes ratio is not constant either for variations in the strain rate or for temperature changes, its value decreasing with strain. investigation into the plastic deformation of cobalt, which has a very low stacking-fault energy, has therefore been undertaken. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Cobalt crystals in the form of rods 0.3 cm in diam were grown in an electron-beam floating-zone refiner at a rate of zone travel of 25 cm per hr. Details of the growing procedure are given in Ref. 1. The zoned cobalt rods had the following analysis:

Jan 1, 1963

By E. von Maltitz

In his highly interesting paper, Piping and Segregation in Steel Ingots,' Prof. Howe emphasizes the effect of successive phases of internal pressure in the ingot in the evolution of gas, and the consequent formation of blow-holes. From his statements in other places, it may be inferred that he does not here intend to ignore the other variable factor, temperature, but rather to discuss this one more particularly. At all events, it is my purpose not to engage in controversy with Prof. Howe, but, rather to contribute, towards the complete elucidation of this important subject which we all desire, my own views and experience. If, in doing so, I specially emphasize other factors than pressure, I need not be understood as denying what I do not think it necessary to discuss fully. Nor, in presenting my own original conclusions, need I be understood as claiming to be the first who ever reached or announced them. Many things are asserted or suggested upon inconclusive evidence; and to confirm such tentative propositions may be as valuable a service as to overthrow them. In the following passage, Prof. Howe adduces analogies, based upon the behavior of charcoal and of water, respectively, which seem to me questionable : "In general, the solvent power falls as the pressure falls ; and in general it rises as the temperature falls. Thus, to heat a solid, for instance charcoal, may expel part of its dissolved gas ; and a tumbler of water drawn cold from the faucet gradually evolves gas, as it stands and warms up on the sideboard." (p. 72.) Charcoal is a solid body, which has the property not only of absorbing gases in large quantities, but also of expelling the thus absorbed gases upon heating. A comparison between charcoal and iron as to the absorption of gases is scientifically not possible; the gas-content of charcoal is partly due to the

Jan 1, 1908