Search Documents

Mining education has received almost continuous discussion since its inception and most people engaged in the mining industry and in mining education feel at some time the urge and necessity to express their views. This paper is not a comprehensive survey of past and present practices and accepted principles, but a personal opinion of the form mining education should take at university level. It is expressed because of a dissatisfaction with the existing courses offered to students. It is hoped to provoke discussionand bring forth guidance to those engaged in mining education. After all, students spend four or five years at a university and it is desirable that the graduate should be something more than just those many years older at the end of his course.POST GRADUATE EMPLOYMENTThe first problem confronting the university should, be to discover what the mining industry wants and expects or graduates. This must influence the university course and yet universities have done little to seek this information, and if suggestions have been offered by industry; universities appear to have made little use of them. University mining curricula are basically what they were 50, 100 and even 200 years ago. (See Appendix.) Whether this reflects the unchanging problems of mining the wisdom of early professors, the conservatism of subsequent professors or inability to apprectate necessity for changes, is debatable.Unfortunately there is no uniformity in the type of employment offered to new graduates: Some mining...

Jan 1, 1959

By Michael D. Balen

The U.S. Bureau of Mines (Bureau) is currently conducting a four-year study to assess the mineral resources and the mineral development potential of the 5.7 million acre Valdez Creek Mining District (VCMD) located in southcentral Alaska. The VCMD study is part of the Bureau's ongoing statewide mining district evaluation program. This report is a summary of the 1988 field work. The field work involved collection of reconnaissance placer and rock samples, and also involved sampling and examination of the mines, prospects, and mineral occurrences which were identified by literature research of the geology, exploration history, and mining history of the district. During the 1988 field season, Bureau personnel spent a total of 11 weeks in the field, collected 1,006 rock and placer samples, and located, mapped, and sampled 106 of the known mineral occurrences. The Bureau has visited 243 of the 250 known mineral occurrences during the course of the VCMD project. Reconnaissance sampling for placer occurrences resulted in the identification of 4 previously unreported gold placer occurrences, and identification of 5 occurrences that contain detectable levels of platinum or palladium. Reconnaissance sampling for lode sources of base and precious metals resulted in the identification of 5 new Lode gold-silver occurrences, identification of 2 occurrences that contain elevated quantities of chromium, cobalt, nickel, palladium, and platinum, and identification of one occurrence that contains elevated quantities of copper, molybdenum, anti zinc.

Jan 1, 2011

By José Samuel Silva Freitas, Bruno Luiz Sperandeo, Gerson da Silva Almeida, Marcel Teixeira Vicente, Lucas Vilaronga Ramos, Bruno Gonçalez Ribeiro, Ricardo de Oliveira Almeida, Stephanie Pedroza Rodrigues, Matheus Antônio de Oliveira Ferreira

O presente trabalho abrange o estudo de um sistema de transporte de matéria prima para a produção de superfosfato granulado, composto por uma sequência de três transportadores de correia convencional e um elevador de canecas. Os componentes destes equipamentos são retratados separadamente, em seguida explica-se o funcionamento do conjunto. São expostos os problemas no desempenho do equipamento e as causas identificadas. Por este motivo, analisa-se a viabilidade econômica da substituição do equipamento atual por um transportador de correia tubular, sistema mais avançado que também é detalhado através da descrição de seus componentes e funcionamento. A análise inicia-se com o dimensionamento dos dois tipos de equipamento de acordo com a planta disponível. Então se compara o cenário atual com o proposto, considerando o desperdício de produto, tempo e custo de paradas para manutenção e custo de implantação do novo equipamento.

Mar 1, 2019

By Giancarlo Alfonso Lovón Canchumani

A indústria da mineração do ferro brasileira ocupa posição relevante no cenário mundial, exportando para os principais mercados consumidores os produtos beneficiados. Esta indústria de beneficiamento tem consumo elevado de recursos e de energia, o que consequentemente gera grandes quantidades de emissões gasosas, líquidas e sólidas, contaminantes do meio ambiente. Nesse contexto o presente artigo tem por objetivo avaliar o ciclo de vida da produção de pelotas de minério de ferro, através da identificação dos impactos ambientais gerados nas etapas de lavra, beneficiamento, transporte e pelotização, com o intuito de dar subsídios a medidas mitigadoras. Foi realizado um estudo de caso em uma empresa de produção de pelotas de minério de ferro e utilizando a metodologia de Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida, baseado na norma ISO 14040. De acordo com os resultados obtidos os impactos ambientais mais importantes em relação ao ciclo de vida da produção de pelota, são referentes à categoria de depleção dos recursos minerais com 64,4% do total ponderado e a emissão de particulados no processo de lavra, que monta a 28,6% do mesmo total. Enquanto a fase com maior contribuição para o impacto total para a produção da pelota é a de beneficiamento.

Aug 16, 2017

LAKE MARGARET is situate high up on the West Coast Range of Tasmania, and lies in a roughly triangular valley formed by the ridge of Mount Sedgwick on the south, the ridge formed by Mounts Geikie and Tyndal on the west, amid a ridge connecting Mounts Geikie and Sedgwick on the east. Any description of this hydroelectric installation, however brief, naturally divides itself into the following sections:1. STORAGE BASIN, &c. 2. DAM. 3. PIPE LINES. 4. POWER STATION. 5. TRANSMISSION LINES. 6. SUBSTATION 7. VARIOUS WORKS utilizing the power.The Storage Basin used is the natural lake itself, which has a maximum length of 110 chains, a maximum width of 40 chains, and a mean arelj. of 300 acres. The water-level of the lake, which has been maintained by a natural dam, is 2143 ft. above sea-level. The approximate catchment area at present appropriated is 7 sq. miles, and the rainfall, on the average, about 144 in. per annum. It is possible to increase this catchment area by suitable races, &c. Dam.-The dam constructed is of very small dimensions, and is not a storage dam in the usual sense of the term. The natural storage ot-the lake itself was used by means of a channel cut through the natural dam and thence to the mouth of the lake, the lake level being thus temporarily lowered while the outlet pipes, screens, &c., were placed in position, and the channel was then closed again with a concrete wall in which the pipes and screens are set. This channel was cut partly through rock and partly through sand and conglomerate boulders for a total...

Jan 1, 1915

By John T. Cumberlidge, Frederic M. Chace

Nickel-bearing saprolite developed during the early Tertiary over a northeast trending ultramafic body of Jurassic age near Riddle in southwestern Oregon. The principal nickel mineral is garnierite, but other complex nickel minerals may be present. There are two main ore bodies, an upper (older) one associated with the Klamath peneplain, and a lower (younger) one on the Sherwood peneplain. Saprolite constitutes the bulk of the ore and was probably derived from peridotite and dunite through chemical decomposition by downward percolating meteoric groundwater. Decomposition took place by net loss of MgO, SiO2, and Fe without a change in volume. Faults and joints provided permeable zones which localized saprolite development, and faulting may have helped preserve some ore from loss by erosion. Garnierite-chalcedony boxwork ore was deposited by meteoric groundwater along faults, joints, and at the level of former water tables. Boxwork ore is entirely supergene, the chemical constituents having been derived from higher in the soil profile. The saprolites show evidence of both supergene and residual enrichment in nickel. Red and yellow soil occurs as a capping over saprolite and boxwork, and was derived from them by chemical and mechanical decomposition. The present deposits are probably truncated remnants of a formerly thicker and much more extensive deposit which probably included laterite at the surface. The deposits started to form in the early Tertiary due to deep chemical weathering under sub-tropical to warmtemperature conditions. Early Tertiary ero~ion surfaces of low relief probably contributed to the predominance of chemical weathering over mechanical erosion. Alteration under present climatic conditions favors the formation of soil from saprolite rather than the formation of new saprolite from peridotite.

Jan 1, 1968

By Kazutoshi Haga, Batnasan Altansukh, Atsushi Shibayama

In this study, the dissolution behavior of copper and arsenic from five different copper concentrates containing 21-34.7 %wt. of Cu, 1.3-7.3 %wt. of As and 15.6-27.5 %wt. of Fe were investigated under high pressure oxidative leaching conditions. Leaching experiments were conducted using different leaching reagents such as ferric sulfate, sodium chloride, deionized water, sulfuric acid and ferric sulfate-sodium chloride mixture in order to compare the effectiveness of each on the dissolution of copper and arsenic from copper concentrates. The effects of ferric sulfate (0.1-1 mol/L), sodium chloride (0.1-0.5 mol/L) and leaching temperature (100-180C) were investigated under 1 MPa autoclave pressure , particle size >45 m, pulp density of 100 g/L, stirring speed of 750 rpm and leaching time of 60 min. Results showed that the most effective leaching reagents for the dissolution of copper are 0.34 M NaCl and a mixture of 0.1 M Fe2(SO4)3 - 0.34 M NaCl, in which As extraction did not exceed 7%. The copper concentration in the pregnant leach solution obtained after leaching using 0.1 M Fe2(SO4)3 - 0.34 M NaCl was 13-30 g/L, while the concentration of As and Fe were in a range between 0.3-1 g/L and 0.2-10 g/L at 160C. INTRODUCTION Copper sulfide minerals, such as chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), chalcocite (Cu2S) and covellite (CuS) are used for the production of copper in mining and metallurgical industries worldwide. The conventional pyrometallurgical processing followed by electrorefining is a common process for the production of high purity copper (Moskalyk, & Alfantazi, 2003; Padilla, Aracena, & Ruiz, 2012). However, the degradation of copper content and an increase in the amount of metal impurities, especially arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) and bismuth (Bi) in copper concentrates cause serious problems to the production of copper and environmental pollution (Basha, Selvi, Ramasamy, & Chellammal, 2008; Long, Peng, & Bradshaw, 2012). Hydrometallurgical processes are used to recover metals from refractory ores, concentrates and tailings by leaching (Long, Peng, & Bradshaw, 2012; Masloboev, Seleznev, Svetlov, & Makarov, 2018). During the last decades, hydrometallurgical processing for the recovery of copper from enargite-bearing copper ores and concentrates has been extensively investigated due to its relatively more environmentally benign and less capital costs than the conventional pyrometallurgical processes (Long, Peng, & Bradshaw, 2012; Masloboev, Seleznev, Svetlov, & Makarov, 2018; Choubey, Lee, Kim, & Kim 2018). However, several issues facing the hydrometallurgical processing are incomplete extraction of copper associated with the coprecipitation of iron compounds, difficult stabilization of toxic impurities and production of a contaminated copper product (Dreisinger, 2003; Safarzadeh, Moats, & Miller, 2014). Hence, a number of studies have been conducted on the selective dissolution of copper from copper ores and concentrates or selective removal of arsenic leaving a clean copper residue using various leaching reagents or lixiviants (Safarzadeh, Moats, & Miller, 2014; Mihajlovic, Strbac, Zivkovic, Kovacevic, & Stehernic, 2007; Tongamp, Takasaki, & Shibayama, 2009). More extensive studies on the selective extraction of copper from enargite- bearing copper ores and concentrates are much needed to improve copper recovery.

Jan 1, 2019

By D Craw

Bulk ore tailings from the Macraes gold mine gold extraction process are stored in a large (ca 0.6 km2, 80 m deep) mixed tailings impoundment whose pH is maintained near 8 by natural rock neutralizing capacity. The mixed tailings will be stored in this impoundment in perpetuity after mining ceases. Confidence in the long term environmental stability of these tailings can be gained from examination of mineralogically and chemically similar geological situations in the immediate vicinity. A sequence, typically about 5 m thick, of sands and gravels derived from the Macraes mineralized zone 12 000 to 28 000 years ago contains rounded detrital sulphide mineral grains which are unoxidized despite close proximity to the surface and occasional incursion of oxygenated waters. Saturating water pH is currently 7-8. Sands with 0.2 to 0.8 wt % organic carbon host sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB), and localized cementation by authigenic framboidal pyrite has occurred. Comparison of the 28 000 year-old sediments with the modem tailings suggests that similar chemistry will prevail, possibly with deposition of authigenic pyrite in the tailings, in the long term. As long as the present slightly anoxic and circumneutral pH environmental conditions are maintained in the mixed tailings dam, sulphide decomposition and acidification are unlikely. These sediments provide a plausible geological analogue for long-term benign storage of the mixed tailings impoundment.

Jan 1, 2000

By Z. J. Fink

Ultraviolet-visible and infrared emission spectra from propagating methane-coal-dust-inhibitor mixtures have been obtained in a 0.2-by 0.2¬by 5.3-m vertical duct over a range of flame speeds from 2 to 100 m/sec. Results serve as a basis for the design and evaluation of thermal radiation detectors for triggered barriers that suppress ongoing mine explosions. Of particular significance is the large continua superimposed on the methane-air spectra when small amounts of coal dust are present and the variation of emissivity with infrared (IR) wavelength in dust flames. In conjunction with the spectral measurements, studies of flame speed, particle size, gas sampling plus thermodynamics, and dust sampling are presented and discussed in order to gain insight into the more fundamental aspects of propagating explosions. Sampling results have shown that only a near-stoichiometric amount of dust is consumed in the flames studied even though initial concentrations are five times stoichiometric. Difficulty in propagating coal-dust inhibitor flames of realistic mine characteristics in a cold-walled laboratory duct has been encountered. A simplified analysis of the flame zone utilizing spectral and sampling results indicates that the stability of slowly propagating flames is more dependent upon thermal radiation than upon convection losses to the walls. It is predicted that thermal radiation losses will make any measurements of coal dust burning velocities, "quenching diameters," or flammability limits more apparatus dependent than those corresponding to gaseous fuels.

Jan 1, 1974

Stratiform lead-zinc mineralization at the Pegmont prospect occurs as a 4-6 m thick body interbedded within arkose, schist, amphibolite, and pegmatite of the Kuridala Formation in the Eastern Belt of the Lower Proterozoic of northwest Queensland.The overall structure of the body is that of a strongly crumpled east-dipping sheet. In detail it is subjected to complex and irregular deformation.Gossaneous outcrops of the mineralised body are anomalous in Pb-Zn-Ag content and have been traced, discontinuously, over about 36 km2 in a NNE-trending belt.Below the zone of oxidation, which reaches 25-40 m below the surface, the primary sulphides are galena, sphalerite, and pyrite.Drilling on a 2 km2 area near the discovery outcrops indicates fairly uniform grades of lead and zinc.Changes in thickness of the mineralised body are gradual.

Jan 1, 1977

By J. Githiria, D. Wachira

The conventional truck and shovel haulage system has become expensive to operate in most mines due to current strict environmental conditions, increase in depth and size of open-pit mines, increase in labour costs, and fuel costs. These factors have motivated the search for alternative material haulage options in open-pit mines. In-pit crushing and conveying (IPCC) system has been regarded as a plausible alternative in material haulage systems. However, usage of IPCC has been limited to a few mines due to limited knowledge of IPCC performance, and other technical factors of the system. This paper investigates, and evaluates the productivity performance of four types of IPCC systems (fixed, semi-fixed, semi-mobile, and fully mobile IPCCs) using mine productivity index (MPi). Using a model developed by MATLAB, the MPi for the four systems is computed using input variables such as availability, utilisation, performance and number of trucks and shovels in a limestone quarry. The mine productivity index for fixed, semi-fixed, semi-mobile, and fully mobile IPCC is obtained as 67.13%, 69.02%, 70.52%, and 71.52% respectively. In conclusion, the fully mobile in-pit crushing and conveying system is the most appropriate IPCC in the quarry, due to its better productivity performance compared to the other three IPCC systems and the truck and shovel system currently in use.

Sep 1, 2021

By L. W. T. Weitzel

"This paper reviews the Falconbridge- SMRQ’s Raglan project in northern Quebec and the process that was used in developing its current long-term mine plan. Challenges were many and not only limited to the longevity of the project, numerous ore deposits (both underground and open pit), and a 40 km property strike length. As a result of its remote northern location, other factors such as progressive reclamation, leachable mine waste, water treatment, and waste management were also part of the plan. A combination of modern planning tools were used to formulate the plan including DataMine, Mine 2-4D, AutoMod Simulation, and an Excel-based financial spreadsheet to bring the total plan together. The focus of the paper is to show the complexity of modern mine planning and associated economic modelling of mine processes. IntroductionThe Raglan project is located 1660 km directly north of Quebec at the northern tip of the Quebec Peninsula in Nunavik. The main property is 40 km in length stretching from the Donaldson airport area at the eastern edge of the property to East Lake at the western edge. The Deception Bay port is 90 km north of the main complex/mill situated at Katinniq which lies approximately in the middle of the property (Fig. 1). The mine processes 1 000 000 tpy of ore from both open pit and underground sources. The mill is forecasted this year to produce more than 150 000 t of concentrate grading more than 18% nickel. All personnel and critical cargo are transported to the site via a company-leased 737 jet from Rouyn-Noranda where the main administration office is located. The majority of cargo is shipped to the site via Deception Bay from Quebec and on the return trip, nickel concentrate is shipped back. From Quebec, the nickel concentrate is sent by rail to the Falconbridge smelter in Sudbury and on the reverse rail haul, nickel matte from the smelter is sent to Norway via Quebec."

Jan 1, 2003

By Russell J. Foster

Many important materials are derived entirely or partially as byproducts of primary copper, lead, and zinc production. This U.S. Bureau of Mines report examines the collective role of byproducts with regard to the economics of domestic mineral production, and their individual significance in terms of dollar value, end uses, and strategic considerations. The study also analyzes circumstances that have affected the competitiveness and structure of the U.S. copper, lead, and zinc industries, and factors that impact byproduct availability. These factors include production capacity at smelters and refineries, process technology, changing sources and composition of ores, regulations, foreign ownership, and byproduct demand and price. Policy considerations regarding stockpiling, regulations, and research are assessed.

Jan 1, 1991

By Cody Giroux, Homer Scurlock, Michel Wasag

Silica and Crystalline Quartz exposure continues to be a serious health threat to nearly 2 million workers in the United States, including more than 100,000 working in high risk jobs such as abrasive blasting, foundry work, stonecutting, rock drilling, quarry work, mining and tunneling. The primary focus of this study is to identify the best methodology to reduce particulate-laden air and limit/eliminate exposure to respirable dust with silica/crystalline quartz during tunneling operations. This study focuses on two de-dusting systems employed on similar tunnel construction projects. The first project is the Coxwell Bypass Tunnel located in Toronto, Ontario Canada. The second project is the Westerly Storage Tunnel located in Cleveland, Ohio. The Toronto project is utilizing a wet de-dusting system. The Cleveland project is using a dry de-dusting system. The objective is to determine which system provides the best protection and suitability to capture, remove and ultimately reduce respirable concentrations of silica/ crystalline quartz to safety and healthy levels in underground tunneling activities.

Jun 13, 2021

By Joseph B. Cummings

"INTRODUCTION The property was first examined by an engineer 3/ of the Bureau of lanes in December 1942 and was later investigated by the sane engineer in January and February 1943. Prominent outcrops and underground exposures of high-grade iron ore, together with mention of sizable intersections of hematite in logs of four widely scattered churn—drill holes, indicated the possible occurrence of a substantial tonnage of iron ore at this old copper producer.From March to May 1943, detailed topographic and geologic mapping of the property was done by the Federal Bureau of Mines, the Federal Geological Survey, and the Arizona Bureau of Mines.Funds were allotted for exploration of the property by churn and diamond drilling. This work was started in December 1943 and completed in June 1944.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSIn its program of exploration of mineral deposits, the Bureau of Nines has as its primary objective the more effective utilization of our mineral resources to the end that they make the greatest possible contribution to national security and economy. It is the policy of the Bureau to publish the facts, developed by each exploratory project as soon as practicable after its conclusion. The Mining Drench, Lowell B. Moon, Chief, conducts preliminary exmination, performs the actual exploratory work, and prepares the final report, The Metallurgical Branch, P. G. Knickerbocker, Chief, analyzes samples and performs beneficiation tests. Both these branches are under the supervision Dr. R. S. Dean, Assistant Director."

Dec 1, 1946

By Bruce Watzman

"Few issues are more important to the National Mining Association (NMA), the U.S. mining industry and NMA’s MINExpo International 2016 exhibitors than safety.Global mining safety and health is a journey necessitating continuous improvement, collaboration and innovation on the part of both mining operators and their suppliers.MINExpo 2016, which takes place Sept. 26- 28, 2016, in Las Vegas, provides attendees with the opportunity to view technologies to help refine management of mining safety and health, utilizing NMA’s CORESafety system. CORESafety ‘One of the best’Launched by NMA in 2011 and moving forward ever since, CORESafety is driving continuous improvement in safety and health performance among participating industry companies by shifting from a command-andcontrol regulatory approach to a risk-based systems approach built on the Plan-Do-Check-Act model (Fig. 1).Considered an exemplary safety and health management system, NMA’s CORESafety system helps mining operators change their approach to safety and health management by enhancing the safety and health culture throughout their organizations. Although it is challenging to consistently and completely control all the factors and variables occurring in daily mining operations, experience has shown that applying systematic controls to as many variables as possible is the most successful approach for improvement in mining safety and health.When embarking upon the development of the CORESafety framework, NMA’s leadership set an ambitious goal to eliminate fatalities and reduce the injury rate 50 percent in five years, or the “0-50-5” goal. While the goal has not been met yet, the steady progress has been extraordinary with fatalities among participating companies dropping 45 percent during the period 2011-2015 (Fig. 2). Data also demonstrate that, as participating companies increase their level of implementation, total injury rates have also declined (Fig. 3).In a September 2015 interview with NMA, Penn State University mining engineering Professor Jeffrey Kohler praised CORESafety as “an inspired and timely program that brings together key elements to achieve safety and health goals.”"

Sep 1, 2016

By LeRoy R. Curwick

This Bureau of Mines report presents the results of a study conducted to assess the domestic availability of chromium from superalloy and cast heat- and corrosion-resistant alloy scrap material. Six alloy classes included in this survey were investment cast, hardfacing, and wrought nickel- and cobalt-base alloys, wrought nickel-iron-base alloys, and heat- and corrosion-resistant alloy castings. Data were collected for 1976 on metallic scrap generation, use patterns, and production practices for these alloy producing and using industries. A model was developed that allowed an assessment of the materials flow circuits within the industries that produce these alloys. The types, amounts, sources, secondary products, and ultimate destinations of chromium- containing metallic scrap for the six alloy classes were determined. Regarding the overall recycling efficiency of these alloy producing and using industries, of the 580.9 million pounds of scrap generated from these six alloy classes in 1976, about 72 percent (416.8 million pounds) was remelted by the same alloy-producing industries, about 18 percent (104.9 million pounds) was downgraded into stainless and low-alloy steels, about 3 percent (19.7 million pounds) was exported, and about 7 percent (39.5 million pounds) was lost through landfill or other disposal or service wastage. The lost material is primarily contaminated oxides for which recovery is currently uneconomic. However, the 124.6 million pounds of scrap material downgraded or exported in 197b contained potentially recoverable critical strategic elements. The amount of scrap material lost to the six alloy-producing industries in this manner contained 22.1 million pounds of chromium, 53.4 million pounds of nickel, 5.9 million pounds of cobalt, 35.9 million pounds of iron, and 7.3 million pounds of other alloying elements.

Jan 1, 1980

By William Naville

Produtos de consumo em massa causam um grande impacto ambiental, destaca-se que as empresas podem se beneficiar com ações, como a inclusão de objetivos de redução de impacto ambiental e sustentabilidade, nas etapas de desenvolvimento, projeto e seleção de materiais sem aumento nos aspectos econômicos. Três produtos de consumo em massa foram estudados: escova de dentes, embalagem de marmita e blister de medicamentos. Por meio de estimativas e simulações, utilizando-se a ferramenta de energia incorporada do software Eco Audit ®, determinou-se o consumo de energia incorporada e as emissões de CO2 para o uso de alguns materiais em potencial. Simultaneamente, considerou-se nos requisitos funcionais e geométricos a preocupação com o meio ambiente na etapa de projeto. O resultado foi que estes produtos de consumo em massa geram um grande impacto ambiental e a seleção de materiais em conjunto com os requisitos funcionais e geométricos, tendo como objetivo adicional uma redução do impacto ambiental, gera redução do gasto de energia incorporada e consequentemente a redução nas emissões de CO2.

Oct 30, 2017

In order to appreciate fully the place of palaeontology within the general framework of the geological sciences, consideration must be given to the time, about 150 years ago, just before the study of fossils was beginning to be applied to geological problems. At theend of the eighteenth century, almost all geologists recognised that fossils were the remains of animals and plants that had lived at the time when the rocks in which they occur were formed. It was also realized that many-some geologists thought all-rocks hadbeen formed under water, but as regards the order of succession in which these rocks had originated, and the relative ages of rocks found in different parts of the world or even of one country, only the haziest and most contradictory ideas existed.Around the turn from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century, a widely taught system of theories was that of the German professor, Abraham Gottlob Werner, who believed that the surface of the earth had once been covered by a universal ocean at whose bottom all rocks had been deposited. As the level of this ocean gradually subsided, older rocks-so Werner taught-are now generally found in the mountains or at great depth below the younger rocks; this was his "Primitive Division" which included granite, gneiss, schists, slates, basalt, porphyry and other igneous and metamorphic rocks, all of which he believed to be of sedimentary origin. Younger rocks, according to Werner, were formed at successively lower levels as the water receded. Next in age he placed a "Transition System" of limestones and greywackes; still younger the so-called "Floetz Division," which included sandstone, limestone, gypsum, salt, coal, but also some basalt, porphyry and other rocks; youngest were the alluvial deposits of recent clays, loams, sands and gravel. Thus, in the Wernerian system the age of a rock was determined on the basis of its petrographic properties and the height of its occurrence relative to sea-level.Here and there these ideas survived well into the nineteenth century. As late as 1825, Charles Darwin listened to lectures by Professor Jamieson, one of the last proponents of Wernerian theories in England. The fact that entirely different kinds of fossils occurredin rocks which were regarded as contemporaneous did not worry the theoreticians.It is, therefore, noteworthy and significant that the value of fossils for the interpretation of geological events was demonstrated to the geologists by an engineer and surveyor, WiIIiam Smith, who, although no professional geologist, has often been called the "Father of English Geology." His professional work, which was mainly concerned with drainage and irrigation projects, took Smith to all parts of England, where he sometimes journeyed as much as 10,000 miles in 11 year. Smith was a keen observer and, unhampered by theoretical speculations, he noted the occurrence of fossils and collected specimens wherever he went. Before long he realized that the same kind of fossils followed each other in successive layers of rocks in much the same way in different parts of England, and soon he was able, by looking at fossils collected by other people, to tell from what...

Jan 1, 1950

By J. C. Johnson

High-grade ore found in a shaft pillar at the Homestake Mine prompted a request for a Bureau of Mines study to determine if selected areas of the shaft pillar could be mined without jeopardizing the shaft. The design approach was to perform a finite-element study of the shaft pillar. Plan view and vertical sections were developed using two-dimensional, elastic, plane strain assumptions. Input into the model consisted of in situ stress measurements geologic mapping rock mass properties, and previous mining history. Results from the study indicated that ore-beating sections of the shaft pillar could be removed within the displacement tolerances acceptable for the shaft. Homestake engineers, using the results of the finite-element study and considering other factors, have designed and are beginning to mine the shaft pillar.

Jan 1, 1989