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Discussion of the paper of Robert R. Abbott, presented at the New York Meeting, October, 1913, and printed in Bulletin No. 82, October, 1913, pp. 2389 to 2400. ALBERT SAUVEUR, Cambridge, Mass.:-Mr. Abbott has certainly made a strenuous effort to ascertain the influence of the various elements on the absorption of carbon by steel-a subject of great importance to those dealing with the case hardening of that metal. Because of the extensive and careful character of Mr. Abbott's experiments, one is all the more disappointed that his results, as he himself recognizes, are not more satisfactory; for, indeed they leave us just about where we were,-still entertaining uncertain views in regard to the carbon-absorbing power of various alloy steels. It might be asked whether Mr. Abbott's method of estimating the amount of carbon absorbed-namely, by weighing the specimens before and after the carburizing treatment-was the best one to select. Are not serious sources of error. inherent to such procedure because of the difficulty of satisfactorily removing the earburizing material attached to the specimen ? The method of least squares has certainly failed to solve the problem satisfactorily. By manipulating Mr. Abbott's results in a different manner I have obtained the following expression: P = 100 - 50 C - 7 Ni + 20 Cr, in which P represents the carbon-absorbing power; C, the percentage of carbon; Ni, that of nickel; and Cr, that of chromium. It is assumed that the carbon-absorbing power of pure iron, or what might be called its carburizability, is represented by 100. Applying the formula, for instance, to a steel containing 0.15 per cent. C, 3 per cent. nickel, and 0.50 per cent. chromium, its carbon-absorbing power would be 100-50X0.15-7X3+20X0.50=81.50; that is, 81.50 per cent. of the carbon-absorbing power of pure iron.

Jan 12, 1913

AN excerpt from the Odessa Isvestia Vechernia, dated April 24, 1927, and translated by P. Routzitzky, summarizes a report by Professor Preobragensky ad-dressed to the Russian Government. Professor Preo-bragensky writes in regard to newly discovered potash deposits in eastern European Russia. Near Solikamsk in the Perm district, about 100 miles east of the Ural mountains and on the Kama river, large deposits have been located and the belt has been traced southward about 25 miles. Subsequently the search for potash salts has been transferred to the Berezovsky district, near Nikolsk, on the Kosva river, about 70 miles north-east-of the city of Perm. Toward the end of March, 1927, at a depth of 800 ft., drilling at the Levensk salt works revealed potash salts in, definite strata. The bed has a thickness which extends from a depth of- 245 to 307 meters (latest data in middle of April, 1927) and has not been bottomed yet. Professor Preobragensky goes on to say that these operations have definitely, developed very large de-posits, the limits of which are still unknown. There is at least an implication that the reserves far exceed those of Stassfurt, Germany. For European use they are, of course, much less accessible, for by through rail they lie 1200 miles east of Petrograd. Further, no particulars are given as to the potash content. It is to be supposed that the salt occurs in the Permian beds that extend north and south along the west flank of the Ural mountains, as the localities mentioned .all lie within the area so mapped on the new geologic map of Russia issued by the Scientific and Technical Di-vision of the All-Russian Council of Soviets in 1922. It is interesting to note that these salt beds are of the same geologic age as those of 'the Stassfurt region and of the west Texas-New Mexico district, in which the U. S. Bureau of Mines is at present drilling.

Jan 7, 1927

By A. B. Stevens

IN the calculation of oil and gas reserves by volumetric methods, it is necessary to know the volume of the reservoir available for the storage of the oil or gas. To obtain this information, a number of methods for determining both total and effective porosity of reservoir rocks are used. For the determination of the total porosity, or the porosity that considers all of the pore spaces, connected and isolated, the Russell7,8,9 and the Melcher-Nutting1-6 methods are the best known and most- widely used in the petroleum industry. These methods have disadvantages in that they give the total porosity of the samples and in that the samples are reduced to grain size in the determination. In many sands there may be little or no difference between total and effective porosity but in other sands there may be considerable difference between the two. For the estimation of oil-and gas reserves the effective porosity of the reservoir rock always should be used. Of the methods that have been developed for the determination of the effective porosity of reservoir rocks, or the porosity that considers only those pore spaces that are connected, the best known are the so-called Boyle's law6,10-13, and the Washburn-Buntings.5,6,11 methods. The Wash-burn-Bunting method is probably the most widely used because it gives effective porosity, it is rapid, and the apparatus is inexpensive. This method employs a special porosimeter in which the core sample is placed in direct contact with mercury. This method has disadvantages in that, as a result of the high vacuum created in the pore spaces, mercury is drawn into the openings, making it impossible to use the sample for a check determination and also ruining the sample for any further test, such as permeability. The purpose of this paper is to describe an appa-ratus employing the same principle as the Washburn-Bunting method but so designed that the core sample does not come in contact with the mercury in the porosimeter.

Jan 1, 1939

By V. F. Marsters

SEEPAGES Of oil in Ecuador have been known for many years. The locality first to receive attention, and still worked in a modest way, lies on the north shore of the Santa Elena peninsula, between La Puntilla and Salinas. Operations were first conducted largely by local capital. Later, foreign companies acquired large blocks of land, where they have done considerable drilling. For details concerning present drilling activities in Ecuador, we are indebted to Leon Price, an American resident engineer of Ecuador. The information solicited, came to the author through the office of the American Consulate,' with permission to use it. The coastal plain bordering the Province of Tumbes, Peru, continues to the northeast, but narrows on passing the Zarumilla River. From this, point northward it widens toward Santa Rosa. In fact, the pampas, as shown on the official Wolf map, correspond fairly well to the areal extent of the coastal plain as far as Guayaquil. This is shown in a general way on the accompanying map. The author understands that the Guayaquil embayment is bordered on all sides by the coastal plain, as recognized at Tumbes and farther southwest, and that it can be followed without a break as far north as Palmar. This view is supported by the mapped area regarded by Mr. Price as favorable or possible oil territory. Moreover the islands in the Gulf of Guayaquil are the same geologically as the coastal edge, being composed of Tertiary sediments. The author understands also that Tertiary formations occur north of Palmar. According to a report by Mr. Cardon, of Guayaquil, Tertiary sediments are exposed in the region of San Francisco and extend to and beyond Pta. Calera. There is also reason to believe that at least the lower part of the valley of the Santiago River is occupied by Tertiary sediments, which probably border the coast line and extend into the River Mira basin, and into Colombia.

Jan 7, 1922

By Harrison Schmitt

IN the practice of ore finding the geologist is continually confronted with the question of oreshoot extension, so that the general problem seems worthy of systematic investigation. This problem appears when the reserves are estimated and when the advisability of deepening the shaft comes up. Moreover, there is need for lower development cost to keep pace with cost reductions in other departments, or even to offset a rising cost of ore finding or ore following. This can be gained by close geologic control of the development; and much of the geology involved is that bearing on the downward, upward, and horizontal extensions of shoots. Furthermore, the purchase of a mine or prospect often depends directly on the question of shoot extension; because it is seldom that the ore is fully developed and the purchase price is almost invariably based largely on "possible" and geologically prospective ore. Most current methods for estimating '(possible" and the more nebulous classes of ore are crude and indecisive. In the following pages the extension of oreshoots is the major theme, although the more basic subject, the general art of ore finding, is given some space. (A) Direct Methods of Extension Prediction (I) Extrapolation and Interpolation of Shoots by Use of Conventional Geologic and Assay Plans, Projections and Cross-sections There is little need for stressing the desirability of detailed geologic plans, assay plans, projections, and cross-sections as a basis for the study and extension prediction of shoots. Underground and surface mapping, in most cases, ought to be done in exhaustive detail. All features of obvious bearing should be mapped and it is good practice to record all possible details, some of which may become significant when studied in the ensemble. It should be emphasized that the mapping should be done with an impartial mind, with interpretation reduced to the minimum. The symbols of the map can be made to distinguish observed facts from interpretation.

Jan 1, 1929

By H. F. McCullough

THE success of a coal-mining venture as relates to operations at the gob or break-line, such as the drawing of pillars or the working of long-faces, depends upon the control of face conditions. The measures required to control the latter are dependent upon the action of the coal seam, roof and floor at and in the vicinity of the faces, but the manner in which these will act is dependent upon the rate of face movement as well as upon the face characteristics and upon the forces exerted. Yet the merits of a method of working-the practicability of controlling face conditions and the means required for such control when applied to any particular case-are usually judged only upon a consideration of the characteristics of coal seam, roof and floor, and the manner in which they have been observed to act. Practically every coal-mining man knows that face conditions are influenced by the rate of face movement, but few have appreciated that this is as much of a factor in the control of face conditions as are the face characteristics and the forces exerted. Fewer yet have recognized or taken advantage of faster rates of face movement as one of the principal means of establishing control of face conditions or of securing more favorable face conditions. Seemingly inherent difficulties, particularly in the control of roof conditions, but also in the control of conditions of the coal seam and floor, are frequently mitigated or disappear when the rate of movement of the faces is sufficiently increased. The characteristics of the coal seam, roof and floor and the forces exerted upon them do determine the general trend or tendency of face action, but the manner in which the coal seam, roof and floor will act and be acted upon and the magnitude of the action during the time the site of mining operations remains at any particular point is very largely determined by the rate of movement of the faces.

Jan 10, 1926

By Stanley Herold

As an accompaniment to the interesting papers which discuss the practical aspects of forced drive, or flooding, in our oil fields, and to others which deal with laboratory or field tests on the same subject, a few remarks on the theoretical principles concerned may not be considered inappropriate at the present time. Without claiming to have had the field experience which some of you certainly possess I venture to present some of the results of an analytical investigation upon this method of increasing the recovery of oil from our natural reservoirs. I firmly believe that these results will accord with your experience. I shall confine the present discussion to the consideration of a perfectly ideal situation Let us assume that the productive formation lies perfectly horizontal, that it is of uniform thickness, of perfectly homogeneous texture, and that it contains oil with gas in solution, and no water, throughout a definite, although undefined, lateral extent. We shall furthermore assume that the pressure existing within the reservoir as thus specified, is such that some of the gas is in the free state, spread uniformly throughout, in the form of minute bubbles within the pores of the formation. We now have an ideal reservoir subject to the peculiar action of capillarity as described by the French physicist Jules Jamin. In all directions within the reservoir we see these bubbles of gas, separated by globules of oil which tend to remain in the capillary channels that connect the pores. The action of these bubbles and globules under the application or release of pressure has been fully described by Jamin.1 Most of our oil fields in the Mid-Continent and Eastern districts are subject to this action of capillarity: The fact that the actual reservoir is often far from being ideal in the manner specified above does not preclude the, influence of this phenomenon. The oil, existing under a pressure exerted by the compressed gas, is securely locked in place

Jan 11, 1926

By Nico Van Wingen

Experiments performed with distilled water, unconsolidated sand and dead oil for the purpose of determining the influence of oil flow on the water content of sands were described. While results found are not necessarily, therefore, identical with those that would be obtained under natural petroleum reservoir conditions, the following conclusions were drawn. 1. When oil under constant head is flowed through an unconsolidated sand, the amount of water retained in the core is inversely proportional to the specific permeability of the core. This corroborates the view that the degree to which oil displaces water out of the pore space is limited by the size of the pores. 2. For the range investigated, the displacing action of a more viscous oil of higher specific gravity was found to be the same as a less viscous oil, or lower specific gravity. 3. The amount of interstitial water retained in the sand bears an inverse relationship to the pressure head of the displacing liquid. 4. The degree of retained water saturation of the sand appears to approach 100 per cent as the specific permeability approaches zero. 5. For the higher values of specific permeability and for the pressure range investigated the remaining amount of water in the sand occupies approximately 10 per cent of the pore space. This, together with the fact that the limiting oil velocity curve approaches approximately 10 per cent water saturation as an asymptote, indicates that beyond this point removal of water is achieved only by a stripping of the grains requiring considerable pressure drops across the sands; or by a balancing of the molecular forces. 6. As the water saturation of the sand exceeds approximately 15 per cent of the pore volume, the permeability of the sand to oil decreases rapidly. 7. Sands with water saturations as high as 40 per cent were found to produce 100 per cent oil.

Jan 1, 1939

By James C. Fulton

Since publication of the First Edition of "Basic Open Hearth Steelmaking," in 1944, this book has been a major reference on the subject of steelmaking. The Second Edition of 1951 was so fundamental that it has retained its general usefulness to the present date. However, recently some of the material has been updated in connection with the writing of a companion book, "Electric Furnace Steelmaking." The sponsor of these two books, the Physical Chemistry of Steelmaking Committee, has felt that the new material should be made equally available to purchasers of either book. Accordingly the subject matter of Chapters 14, 15, and 16 of this new edition is duplicated by corresponding chapters in "Electric Furnace Steelmaking." It was also recognized that the use of oxygen in the open hearth and in the new basic oxygen processes represents a major development that should not be omitted from any basic reference. Thus the major new feature of this Third Edition is the supplement on "Oxygen in Steelmaking." The cooperation of the Iron and Steel Division's Acid Converter and Basic Oxygen Steel Committee (now merged to form the National Open Hearth and Basic Oxygen Steel Committee) is specifically recognized. In addition to the authors of chapters listed elsewhere, it should be noted that Arthur B. Wilder was the Committee Chairman. Although the changes in the Third Edition are important, the Committee cannot overlook the classic character of the Second Edition. This edition was edited by W. O. Philbrook and M. B. Bever in collaboration with H. B. Emerick and B. M. Larsen. It is anticipated that the Third Edition will maintain the value of the book until the current rapid changes in all basic steelmaking processes stabilize themselves sufficiently to justify a complete revision of the entire text in Part I. The experienced service of Wesley Burr in incorporating the new material in the index is also recognized.

Jan 1, 1964

By Nico Van Wingen

Experiments performed with distilled water, unconsolidated sand and dead oil for the purpose of determining the influence of oil flow on the water content of sands were described. While results found are not necessarily, therefore, identical with those that would be obtained under natural petroleum reservoir conditions, the following conclusions were drawn. 1. When oil under constant head is flowed through an unconsolidated sand, the amount of water retained in the core is inversely proportional to the specific permeability of the core. This corroborates the view that the degree to which oil displaces water out of the pore space is limited by the size of the pores. 2. For the range investigated, the displacing action of a more viscous oil of higher specific gravity was found to be the same as a less viscous oil, or lower specific gravity. 3. The amount of interstitial water retained in the sand bears an inverse relationship to the pressure head of the displacing liquid. 4. The degree of retained water saturation of the sand appears to approach 100 per cent as the specific permeability approaches zero. 5. For the higher values of specific permeability and for the pressure range investigated the remaining amount of water in the sand occupies approximately 10 per cent of the pore space. This, together with the fact that the limiting oil velocity curve approaches approximately 10 per cent water saturation as an asymptote, indicates that beyond this point removal of water is achieved only by a stripping of the grains requiring considerable pressure drops across the sands; or by a balancing of the molecular forces. 6. As the water saturation of the sand exceeds approximately 15 per cent of the pore volume, the permeability of the sand to oil decreases rapidly. 7. Sands with water saturations as high as 40 per cent were found to produce 100 per cent oil.

Jan 1, 1939

By A. U. Seybolt

A. U. Seybolt (General Electric Research Laboratory)— As pointed out in an earlier paper,41 it appears to be very difficult to nucleate Si3N4 in Si-Fe of silicon content up to around 5 pet. Therefore, one observes, as did Pearce, that equilibrations with nitrogen gas yield only nitrogen in solid solution at temperatures above about 700°C, or, as Pearce found, 770°C. Evidently, the free energy of formation of Si3N4 only becomes high enough at -770°C to overcome the reluctance of Si3N4 to nucleate. However, as mentioned in Ref. 41, if some Si3N4 is first formed by a mixture of ammonia and hydrogen, one can then replace this gas mixture by nitrogen gas, and either increase or decrease the amount of Si3N4 present at any temperature by suitable adjustment of nitrogen pressure: that is, to equilibrate with Si3N4. In the equilibration experiments cited in Ref. 41, equilibrium was approached from both sides, and it was found that samples up to 944oC, at least, were in equilibrium with Si3N4. Higher temperatures were not employed, as this would have necessitated a redesign of the apparatus for using nitrogen pressures in excess of 1 atm. To summarize, the results of Pearce's experiments and those of Ref. 41 cannot be directly compared because two quite different equilibria were studied. Therefore, the statement by Pearce on p. 1398 indicating apparent error in Ref. 41 is unjustified. M. L. Pearce (author's reply)— There was limited evidence obtained in the current investigation which would indicate that excessive "supercooling" did not occur. A small piece of the same resulting from heat treatment No. 5 in Table III was subsequently held at 800°C for 16 hr in 95 pet N-5 pet H. Isotope-

Jan 1, 1964

By Arthur C. Simmons

The Pennsylvania-grade oil industry suffered a serious decline in 1938, which can be largely accounted for by the decrease in the use of lubricating oil. Production was considerably lower than in previous years and prices were very much lower. Operating profits undoubtedly were lower than the year 1933, for the average price of Bradford crude in 1938 was $1.898 as compared with $1.86 in 1933, and the difference in average price of $0.04 per barrel was more than offset by increased operating costs and taxes. Bradford Field Production in the Bradford field in the state of Pennsylvania averaged 36,759 bbl. per day in 1938 as compared with 41,300 bbl. in 1937. The decline in average daily production of 4541 bbl. can be attributed to low market price and pipe-line proration rather than to the actual physical capacity of the field. Pipe-line proration was in effect for the last eight months of the year and the daily average production per month fluctuated between a maximum of 41,852 bbl. per day in March 1938 and a minimum of 33,649 bbl. per day in November. Production figures for Bradford field have been corrected to include only the parts of the Bradford field that arc within the state of Pennsylvania, but the well-completion data for the Bradford field cannot be segregated and include those of the entire Bradford field, part of which is in Sew York state. Production from the Bradford field was obtained almost wholly by water-flooding and no radically new methods or practices occurred. Intensive research work was carried on both by individuals and companies and as a cpooperative enterprise, and minor improvements are gradually occurring in spacing, shooting, application of pressure and water conditions. Drilling Central and Southen Pennsylvania.—Pennsylvania production in central and southern Pennsylvania was obtained largely by air and gas repressuring together with the usual amount of natural production, and the repressuring operations in other than the Bradford field have not

Jan 1, 1939

By B. E. Thompson, H. B. Fuqua

For a very brief description of the North Texas area, and the general geological features with which it is associated, the reader is referred to the opening paragraph of last year's summary1. A more complete discussion of the structure of the area, together with other interesting data concerning it, has been published recently by the Bureau of Economic Geology at the University of Texas2. It has been impossible for the authors to isolate the statistics for production for each of the many small pools of this district, as such statistics are not kept by operators except by counties or arbitrary divisions of counties. The total number of wells drilled in Archer, Wichita and Clay counties also has been subject to some estimate, as many of the shallower holes are not reported. While both routine development in proven or semiproven areas and exploratory drilling during 1935 showed an increase over the year 1934, the discovery of new producing areas of importance did not show improvement over that period. Several extremely local productive spots within semiproven areas were found in Archer, Cooke and Wilbarger counties; and extensions to older producing areas were developed in Archer, Baylor, Cooke, Montague, Wichita and Wilbarger counties. In Archer County, the Grace and Woods No. 1 Archer County (Fee), 4 miles northwest of Archer City, in the Thomas Glass survey, encountered a sand from 2836 to 2845 ft. of Pennsylvanian (lower Canyon) age, which showed an initial yield of 75 bbl. daily. While its production is of negligible importance, it is given special mention in this review because of the fact that it is producing from a new and deeper horizon than has been previously exploited in the county. Little deep development occurred in the district during the year. The Walter Gant No. 2 C. M. Worsham in J. M. Swisher survey, about 14 miles east of Henrietta, in Clay County, was abandoned at 5127 ft. in

Jan 1, 1936

W. R. Ingalls, since 1905 editor of the Engineering and Mining Journal, retires from that position with the issue of Mar. 22, to open offices in New York City as a consulting engineer. The severing of this connection .will not be complete, however, as Mr. Ingalls will continue as consulting editor, and will handle the metal-market quotations in the Journal which are now the accepted authority for the government settlements of ore importations and the basis of practically all the ore settlements between miners and smelters throughout' the country. No greater compliment can be paid to Mr. Ingalls than this, unless it is the recognized fact that these quotations have been made what they are by his ability and his integrity, which secured for him channels of information vital to the accurate estimating of the market, but denied to anyone else. The Journal, under the. strong hand of Mr. Ingalls, has always been the acme of ethics in technical journalism, and the best wish that can he given to his successor, not yet announced, is that the Journal may long continue to live up to the standards not originated, but so consistently maintained and strengthened by Mr. Ingalls. His spelter statistics are accepted as authoritative wherever the English language is read and zinc ore is mined. He has found time during his very arduous years on the Journal to he the author of several works on the resources and metallurgy of zinc, lead, cadmium, etc.; for 5 years was the editor of Mineral Industry; and was consulting engineer for the Bureau of Mines and joint author of their voluminous and authoritative work on mine safety rules. His retirement from the Journal is a distinct loss to every one of the Journal's readers individually and to the profession as a whole. Universal good wishes go with Mr. Ingalls to his new field, which has for a long time been offering him professional attractions that his confining editorial work has not permitted him to accept.

Jan 4, 1919

By Arthur C. Simmons

The Pennsylvania-grade oil industry suffered a serious decline in 1938, which can be largely accounted for by the decrease in the use of lubricating oil. Production was considerably lower than in previous years and prices were very much lower. Operating profits undoubtedly were lower than the year 1933, for the average price of Bradford crude in 1938 was $1.898 as compared with $1.86 in 1933, and the difference in average price of $0.04 per barrel was more than offset by increased operating costs and taxes. Bradford Field Production in the Bradford field in the state of Pennsylvania averaged 36,759 bbl. per day in 1938 as compared with 41,300 bbl. in 1937. The decline in average daily production of 4541 bbl. can be attributed to low market price and pipe-line proration rather than to the actual physical capacity of the field. Pipe-line proration was in effect for the last eight months of the year and the daily average production per month fluctuated between a maximum of 41,852 bbl. per day in March 1938 and a minimum of 33,649 bbl. per day in November. Production figures for Bradford field have been corrected to include only the parts of the Bradford field that arc within the state of Pennsylvania, but the well-completion data for the Bradford field cannot be segregated and include those of the entire Bradford field, part of which is in Sew York state. Production from the Bradford field was obtained almost wholly by water-flooding and no radically new methods or practices occurred. Intensive research work was carried on both by individuals and companies and as a cpooperative enterprise, and minor improvements are gradually occurring in spacing, shooting, application of pressure and water conditions. Drilling Central and Southen Pennsylvania.—Pennsylvania production in central and southern Pennsylvania was obtained largely by air and gas repressuring together with the usual amount of natural production, and the repressuring operations in other than the Bradford field have not

Jan 1, 1939

By J. L. Weeks

THERMAL conductivities of several samples of uranium and uranium alloys were determined using an apparatus previously described.' The value previously reported for uranium,' 0.035 cal per sec per cm per "C at 70°C, is in error due to the failure of a thermocouple during the determination on uranium. The defective thermocouple was detected after a reanalysis of the data obtained during the run and since has been replaced. Subsequently, runs on several samples of uranium show the thermal conductivity of uranium to be 0.069 cal per sec per cm per 'C at 70°C. The accuracy of the determinations was checked by measuring a sample of synthetic sapphire whose thermal conductivity was previously reported and found to be in agreement with other values."-" The values given in Table I are believed correct to % 3 pct or 0.003 cal per sec per cm per "C, whichever is larger. The samples were provided by J. H. Kittel of the Argonne National Laboratory, Metallurgy Div. References J. L. Weeks and R. L. Seifert: Apparatus for the Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity of Solids. Review of Scientific Instruments (1953) 24, pp. 1054-1057. J. L. Weeks and R. L. Seifert: Note Regarding the Thermal Conductivity of Synthetic Sapphire. Journal American Ceramic Society (1952) 35, p. 15. :' J. Francl and W. D. Kingery: Thermal Conductivity: IV, Apparatus for Determining Thermal Conductivity by a Comparative Method; Data for Pb, Al2O3, BeO, and MgO. Journal American Ceramic Society (1954) 37, No. 2, Part 11, pp. 80-84. (Part 11: special issue on thermal conductivity.) ' W. D. Kingery, J. Francl, R. L. Coble. and T. Vasilos: Thermal Conductivity: X, Data for Several Pure Oxide Materials Corrected to Zero Porosity. Journal American Ceramic Society (1954) 37, No. 2, Part II, pp. 107-110. (Part 11: special issue on thermal conductivity.) Edwin Ruh: New Jersey Ceramic Research Station, Rutgers University. Private communication.

Jan 1, 1956

By Martin Coryell

EHRENBERG was the first to publish and direct attention to the peculiarities of the diatomaceous deposit of Richmond; but how and by whom he was supplied with the material for his microscopical investigations, is not generally known; but we may presume W. B. Rogers, formerly State Geologist of Virginia, furnished the material, and may have given the geological position or horizon. O£ these facts we have no available evidence, nor have we any estimate of the thickness of this stratum of diatomaceous or infusorial earth. At the request of a member of this Institute, I have investigated the subject, and offer the following facts as the result, derived principally from information supplied by Mr. John Ott, of the Southern Fertilizing Company, Dr. William Taylor, State Chemist, C. Peticolas, microscopist, Captain Robert H. Temple, civil engineer, Major C. M. Bolton and Mr. C. M. Smith, civil engineers, and formerly engaged in constructing the tunnel under Church Hill, in Richmond. The city of Richmond is generally described as being built on seven hills. This is not the fact, geologically speaking. Originally, there was an immense plateau of land, about two hundred feet above tide, in which a deep excavation was made from the west to east by the James River cutting down to the granite. Opening southward and meeting the valley of the James are various ravines and gullies, in the principal of which are Shockoe and Gillies Creeks. The formation is tertiary, subdivided into all the classified divisions, but at the present moment no one has been found to make this section a special study. Rogers's early classifications and diagrams, with all their imperfections, are the only published records, and the printed editions are long since exhausted. The city of Richmond is really situated in these ravines of the James, Shockoe, Gillies, and their connections. The profile marked A, Plate V, represents the section of the plateau

Jan 1, 1876

By Walter Wood

The specifications for cast-iron pipe that have been submitted at this meeting are practically the outgrowth of those which were originally adopted, about 1860, by Mr. Kirkwood of Brooklyn, N. Y. They have been changed but little since that time, the mode of testing pipe in the hydraulic press, as well as the method of coating, not having departed from the original practice. The chief addition to the specifications has been in the adoption of a test-bar 2 in. by 1 in. in crosa-section, broken between 24-in. supports by a transverse strain applied on the flat side. Test-bars were first introduced into pipe-specifications about 1870. At that time a satisfactory test-piece had to stand a tensile strain of 16,000 lb. per square inch. The present test-bar was adopted in order to give some idea of the deflection of the iron that was being used. These deflection-tests have been so satisfactory to both engineers and manufacturers, and have met the requirements of the pipe-trade so accurately, that it is considered best to hold to the . 2-in. by 1-in. bar instead of adopting the short " Arbitration Bar," which yields but little information from the stand-point of deflection. The new feature in these specifications is the effort to reach standards to which pipe shall be cast in the future, thus permitting the manufacturer to make up stock and the purchaser to find material on hand when he asks for deliveries. Heretofore there has never been ally standard weight for pipes? although in some sizes certain weights are more frequently asked for than others. The fixing of standards for pipes permits the adoption of definite standards for fittings. It has been aimed to secure such uniformity for fittings as will permit the same class of fittings to cover two or more classes of pipe. In order to accomplish

Jan 1, 1905

By Martin Coryell

Ehrenberg was the first to publish and direct attention to the peculiarities of the diatomaceous deposit of Richmond; but how and by whom he was supplied with the material for his microscopical investigations, is not generally known; but we may presume W. B. Rogers, formerly State Geologist of Virginia, furnished the material, and may have given the geological position or horizon. OF these facts we have no available evidence, nor have we any estimate of the thickness of this stratum of diatomaceous or infusorial earth. At the request of a member of this Institute, I have investigated the subject, and offer the following facts as the result, derived principally from information supplied by Mr. John Ott, of the Southern Fertilizing Company, Dr. William Taylor, State Chemist, C. Peticolas, microscopist, Captain Robert H. Temple, civil engineer, Major C. M. Bolton and Mr. C. M. Smith, civil engineers, and formerly engaged in constructing the tunnel under Church Hill, in Richmond. The city of Richmond is generally described as being built on seven hills. This is not the fact, geologically speaking. Originally, there was an immense plateau of land, about two hundred feet above tide, in which a deep excavation was made from the west to east by the James River cutting down to the granite. Opening southward and meeting the valley of the James are various ravines and gullies, in the principal of which are Shockoe and Gillies Creeks. The formation is tertiary, subdivided into all the classified divisions, but at the present moment no one has been found to make this section a special study. Rogers's early classifications and diagrams, with all their imperfections, are the only published records, and the printed editions are long since exhausted. The city of Richmond is really situated in these ravines of the James, Shockoe, Gillies, and their connections. The profile marked A, Plate V, represents the section of the plateau

By J. L. Weeks, K. F. Smith

IN order to determine the magnitude of thermal conductivity changes resulting from alloying vanadium with titanium and a few other elements, several sam~les were PrePared and measured. The thermal conductivity -values reported herein in Table I were determined with an apparatus previously described.' As in recently reported2 determinations on uranium and uranium alloys, whose thermal conductivities are in the same range as vanadium," the accuracy of the values was checked by using synthetic sapphire." The error in the measurement is estimated to be '-3 pct or 0.003 cal sec-1 cm-l "C-1, whichever is larger. The vanadium used in preparing the samples was the calcium-reduced type and was supplied by the Electro Metallurgical Co. as 99.6+ pct pure. All alloying elements used in the preparations were 99+ pct pure. A nonconsumable tungsten electrode arc furnace was used for melting the alloys and, without opening the furnace, each ingot was re-melted a number of times to insure homogeneity. The samples as prepared by the Armour Research Foundation were machined from as forged material without annealing. Acknowledgment The note is based on work performed under the auspices of the AEC. References 'J. L. Weeks and R. L. Seifert: Apparatus for the Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity of Solids. Review of Scientific Instruments (1953) 24, pp. 1054-1057. 2 J. L. Weeks: Thermal Conductivity of Uranium and Several Uranium Alloys. Trans. AIME (1955) 203, p. 192; Journal of Metals (January 1955). 3C. A. Hampel: Rare Metals Handbook. (1954) p. 593. New York. Reinhold Publishing Corp. Thermal conductivity of vanadium is given as 0.074 cal sec-1 cm- '°C-1 at 100°C. 4 J. L. Weeks and R. L. Seifert: Note Regarding the Thermal Conductivity of Synthetic Sapphire. Journal Amer. Ceramic Soc. (1952) 35, p. 15. At 70°C, K = 0.071 cal sec-l cm-l °C-1.

Jan 1, 1956