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By C. M. Nickerson

The possibility of deeper production in the Buena Vista Hills was first considered in 1933. At that time, however, the heavy state curtailment program served to deter any operator from drilling test wells, which, if successful, might upset the proration schedules. Because most of the acreage was held by several major operators and the remainder by substantial independents, the adoption of a plan of cooperative development was considered desirable. Such a plan was formulated for the development of any deeper oil and gas horizons that may be found to exist. This plan, which was signed by the Secretaries of the Navy and of the Interior on behalf of the United States on July 9,1936, is now effective for the development of lands within the area shown on Fig. 1. Unlike most unit plans, the present cooperative development plan permits each operator to drill and produce his own wells. For the purpose of this plan the Buena Vista Hills field is divided into two pools. The present production is classed as the " old pool,"' while any future production below a certain marker which roughly coincides with the bottom of the Santa Margarita formation is included in the "pool" to which the provisions particularly apply. Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 2 lies within the area and constitutes the major portion of the Federal leases subject to the plan. There are 39,040 acres and 27 operators within the area. Twenty-six operators controlling 99.5 per cent of the acreage have signed the agreement. Geology oF the Buena Vista Hills The Buena Vista Hills consist of a low range in the southern portion of the San Joaquin Valley, and are roughly parallel to the adjacent Temblor range to the south. The Elk Hills oil field parallels the Buena Vista Hills a few miles to the north. The subsurface structure is a re-entrant anticline upon the major Midway-Sunset monocline. This anticline is divided into two minor

Jan 1, 1937

By Morris Muskat

A theory is presented for calculating the performance history of complete water-drive systems producing from idealized stratified formations. The general equations are applied to systems where the permeability stratification is either of the exponential or linear type. Calculations were carried through for different degrees of permeability stratification, but with special emphasis on the effect of the mobility ratio between the produced oil and the invading water on the resultant performance. These results are also expressed graphically as curves for the initial water breakthrough recovery, for the different degrees of stratification, as a function of the mobility ratio, and of the composition of the produced fluid stream as a function of the cumulative oil recovery. For several typical cases the latter has also been plotted as a function of the cumulative oil and water throughflow. The general result is that when the mobility of the oil is lower than that of the invading water the channelling tendency resulting from the permeability stratification becomes aggravated as the higher permeability zones become flooded out. Situations of this type would obtain when producing low gravity or highly viscous oils. Conversely, if the mobility of the oil is high compared to that of the invading water, the flooding of the high permeability zones will lead to a retarding and choking effect, and the gross bypassing phenomena will be partially suppressed. These conditions would correspond to those of flooding high gravity or low viscosity oils. A discussion is given of the various basic assumptions made in the analysis, including that of ignoring the stripping phase of the production history as implied by relative permeability concepts. INTRODUCTION The physical ultimate recoveries from oil reservoirs are basically determined and limited by the physical oil displacement processes associated with the reservoir producing mechanism. In practice, however, the economic ultimate recoveries are further limited by the mobility of the reservoir fluids and the uniformity and continuity of the producing formation. In fact, it is the differential depletion between the component parts of the composite reservoir which ultimately determines the total recovery at the time of field abandonment. While this observation applies to both the solution gas drive and gravity drainage mechanisms, in which use is made only of the energy contained within the original oil-bearing reservoir, it is of even more paramount importance under operations wherein the energy associated with extraneous fluids provides the ultimate oil expulsion mechanism. Whether the invading fluid is the water from an edgewater drive, water injected for pressure maintenance, gas injected for pressure maintenance, or gas returned to the formation in a cycling program, it is often the continuity and uniformity of the producing section which will control the economic efficiency of the operations. The importance of the problem of reservoir non-uniformity does not, of course, lessen its complexity or the difficulties of its solution. In fact, these are inherently such that the concept of a "general" solution is virtually meaningless. About all that can be reasonably hoped for is the analysis of specific and well-defined types of non-uniformity which may give some degree of approximation to actual reservoir conditions. Since variations in the nature of the reservoir which depend only on the position along the streamlines will not lead directly to major differential depletion development within the reservoir, the types of non-uniformity considered thus far have involved stratification assumptions. That is, the producing section has been replaced by a multi-layer "sandwich," each uniform areally, and differing from the others only in its basic physical constants as to thickness, porosity and permeability. The fluid motion in the composite system is thus approximated by a parallel superposition of the independent fluid movements in the individual strata. For the specific application to cycling operations the theory of the effect of permeability stratification has been developed for both discontinuous' and continuous types of permeability stratification. Among the latter, treatments have been given of systems in which permeability distributions are governed by exponential, linear' or probability3 functions. In all these studies complete dynamical equivalence was assumed between the injected dry gas and the displaced wet gas. The overall effective permeability of each stratum was therefore considered as constant and independent of the degree of invasion of the injected fluid. In the case of the displacement of oil by water, the assumption of dynamical equivalence between the water and oil will be strictly valid only by accident. Even if the oil viscosity should be the same as that of the water, the effective permeability to the oil in the presence of the connate water will in general be quite different from that of the water behind the water-oil interface flowing past the trapped residual oil. As a result the effective permeability for the stratum as a whole and rate of water invasion will change with time as the intrusion continues. The differential fluid motion in the individual strata will thus also vary with time. Qualitatively, it is easy to predict the resultant effects. If the permeability to viscosity ratio of the invading fluid exceeds that of the fluid displaced, the stratification and bypassing effect of the perme-

Jan 1, 1950

By R. M. Brick, J. T. Richards

Tests have been conducted to determine the mechanical properties of several beryllium copper alloys down to liquid air temperatures. The materials investigated include beryllium copper, beryl-lium-cobalt-copper, and beryllium-zinc-copper in the wrought and cast conditions. As a means of evaluation, the influence of cold work and age hardening treatment upon subzero behavior has been observed. The effects of temperature upon both elastic and plastic deformation are also considered. THE low temperature mechanical properties of beryllium copper are of current interest in view of the increasing number of subzero applications. At extremely low temperatures, beryllium copper components are employed in temperature control and gas liquefaction equipment. At more moderate temperatures, such as those encountered in arctic regions, these alloys find use in a wide range of civilian and military applications. Although several previous subzero investigations have included beryllium copper,'-' none have been complete with respect to test temperatures or materials employed. As indicated in Table I, the alloy: used by Colbeck and MacGillivray,1 Walle,2 and Kostenets' were nonstandard and were not representative of present commercial practice. In addition, Kostenets4 did not test age hardened specimens, while the temperature in the other investigations", "-' were not carried below —100°F. These tests, however, indicate that beryllium copper offers interesting possibilities in subzero atmospheres, since the increase in strength with decreasing temperature is not accompanied by a reduction in ductility or impact resistance. As a means of checking and extending this earlier work at subzero temperatures, an investigation was undertaken at the University of Pennsylvania. In addition to testing the standard 2 pct beryllium copper, other alloys were also considered in wrought and cast forms. Charpy impact and tension tests were included with particular emphasis on the elastic characteristics, since beryllium copper is frequently selected for its spring qualities. Nominal test temperatures were +80°, —75", —200°, and —300°F. Test Materials Wrought beryllium copper, beryllium-cobalt-copper, and beryllium-zinc-copper specimens were machined from 0.560 in. diameter rod. These alloys were tested in the solution treated, cold drawn, or age hardened conditions. In the case of solution treated beryllium copper, some specimens were aged (3 hr at 600°F) for maximum hardness and others were overaged (1 1/2 hr at 750°F) to determine the effect of heat treatment. The compositions and average room temperature properties of these wrought alloys are presented in Table 11. The casting alloy versions of beryllium copper and beryllium-cobalt-copper were prepared as sand-cast cylinders, roughly 3/4 in. diameter x 6 in. long. Test specimens were machined from these cylinders. Conditions tested included as cast as well as solution treated and age hardened. Table 111 lists compositional and room temperature property data for the cast alloys. Test Methods Tension tests were conducted on specimens having a 0.25 in. diameter reduced section over a 1 in. gage length. To insure axiality, specimens were loaded by means of hardened chains. The yield strength at 0.2 pct offset was obtained from autographically recorded stress-strain curves resulting from a spe-

Jan 1, 1955

By L. D. Jaffe, John H. Hollomon

THE hardenability concept has become widely used during the last few years for the choice and substitution of steels. Before the work of Grossmann,1 the systems for predicting hardenability from chemical composition could be used only over a narrow range of composition. Grossmann introduced a comprehensive system, which has been effective in calculating the hardenability of most types of moderate or low-alloy steels. However, occasions .often arise that require the calculation of the hardenability of high-alloy steels from their chemical compositions. Experimental determinations of the hardenabilities of such steels indicate that the Grossmann system predicts much greater hardenabilities than are realized. The fact that cases do arise in which the Grossmann method does not, apply indicates that the fundamental hypothesis of the system may not be generally applicable. It seems advisable to re-examine not only Grossmann's system but also the concept of hardenability itself. HARDENABILITY If steel parts are to possess a martensitic structure after quenching, they must first be austenitized and then cooled through the pearlite and bainite transformation ranges sufficiently rapidly to avoid the formation of pearlite, bainite, and proeutectoid products.* If, on cooling, these transformations are avoided, the resulting structure can consist only of martensite (and retained austenite). The hardenability of a steel is measured in terms of the severity of the cooling conditions necessary to avoid the pearlite and bainite transformations. The less rapid is the cooling necessary to prevent the formation of bainite and pearlite, the higher is the hardenability. The pearlite and bainite reactions appear to be differently affected by the alloying elements. Not only is this indicated by the published isothermal transformation data, but recent work by Zener2 affords a rational interpretation of the differing effects of the alloying elements. Manganese,3 for example, appears to decrease the rates of the pearlite and bainite transformations by equal percentages, while molybdenum4,5 is approximately 10,000 times more effective in retarding the pearlite than in retarding the bainite transformation, on the basis of isothermal measurements. In some steels, the formation of bainite restricts the formation of martensite while

Jan 1, 1946

By Robert F. Shurtz, William J. Verner

Three basic questions must be answered by an engineer performing an economic analysis of a mineral property: (1) How much can the company afford to pay for the property; (2) At what rate should the property be mined; (3) What will be the return on the investment. These questions often defy reasonable analysis, because at the point in time at which they must be answered little may be known about the grade of ore and the reserve tonnage. The purpose of this report is twofold. First, to derive a method of determining purchase price, rate of production and return on investment which is valid under varying conditions of ore grade and tonnage reserve; and, second, to apply this method to the Margay deposit in an attempt to evaluate it as a business enterprise. This is an actual economic analysis of an existing nickel-copper deposit fictitiously named the Margay. It was carried out for a mining corporation and proved to be the determining factor in the subsequent purchase and development of the property. All data referring to costs, quality and quantity of ore, etc., are accurate and truly represented. Prices used are obsolete but the method is not dependent on those variables. Basic assumptions for the analysis are given in Table I, page 71.

Jan 11, 1966

By Erkki Laurila

INVESTIGATION of the methods of analyses for magnetite and ilmenite in the Otanmäki iron-titanium ore and respective mill products has resulted in certain improvements in the methods conventionally employed. The outcome of the investigations is summarized as follows: 1-Development of a diamond-drill core analyser for the determination of magnetic susceptibility of drill cores containing magnetic minerals. 2-Development of a magnetite-ilmenite analyser for pulverized products. 3-Development of a potentiometric method of chemical analysis for the determination of iron, vanadium, and titanium in succeeding steps from one test sample. 4-Proposal for a continuous and automatic magnetite assay method.

Jan 9, 1951

By J. M. Hodge, M. A. Orehoski

The relationship between hardenability based on a 50 per cent martensite criterion, and that based on higher percentages of martensite in a number of low-alloy steels was discussed in a previous paper by the authors.' It was found that the differences between the hardenability values based on the 50 per cent martensite and full martensite criterions increased as the hardenability increased and that, in the steels of higher hardenability, these differ-

Jan 1, 1947

By M. A. Orehoski, J. M. Hodge

The relationship between hardenability based on a 50 per cent martensite criterion, and that based on higher percentages of martensite in a number of low-alloy steels was discussed in a previous paper by the authors.' It was found that the differences between the hardenability values based on the 50 per cent martensite and full martensite criterions increased as the hardenability increased and that, in the steels of higher hardenability, these differ-

Jan 1, 1947

By John H. Bell

R. B. T. KILIANI, New York, N. Y.-I wish to present some figures based upon actual observation extending over a few months time which seem to prove the author's conclusions. It is a comparison of two machines operating on the same ore, in the same plant, one taking the undersize of ½ -in. screen and the other taking the undersize of 8-mesh. Each of the machines was first operated as a pebble mill, with flint pebbles, in open circuit, then with metal pebbles in open circuit and, finally with metal pebbles in closed circuit. For the first case, the percentage of oversize on 48-mesh, Tyler screen, in the discharge, varied, in the mill taking ½ -in- feed, from 37.2 to 19.9 per cent. The second mill, taking the 8-mesh feed, had a variation in oversize on 48-mesh, from 36.8 per cent: to 0.5 per cent.; so it is seen there is considerable variation in these figures. I have computed the tons per kilowatt-day reduced through 48-mesh for each machine under each one of these conditions, giving 6 sets of figures. The first of these I called 1.0 and determined the ratio of the others to this.. In the snipe way, I figured the relative mechanical efficiency according to Kick's law, using' the figures given by Mr. Taggart in his paper, for ordinal numbers of the Tyler screens. I have also figured the efficiency in mesh-tons per horsepower according to Gates' method by plotting the screen analyses of feed and product and multiplying the area by a constant dependent on the scale used. The commercial efficiency of tons per kilowatt-day reduced through 48-mesh checks very closely with the efficiency by Rittinger's law, within 1 per cent. except in one case. By Kick's law, the efficiency checks fairly closely, within about 5 per cent., with the commercial efficiency of the mill grinding feed, but when we start to grind a finer, 8-mesh material, and especially grinding very fine; with a

Jan 4, 1917

By James Morgan

The convenience of mechanical arrangements for handling ingots, blooms, billets, bars, beams, etc., and feeding them to the rolls, is so universally recognized as to require no demonstration. In the rolling of heavy beams, such as are now coming into general use, such arrangements are practically essential, by reason of the difficulty and expense of the manual handling of the large masses of metal treated. I submit herewith the drawings of a rolling-mill feed-table, designed and patented by myself, which I think will be found simple in construction and operation, not likely to get . out of order, and efficient in performing the work for which it is intended. Fig. 1 is a sectional plan, taken on the line I I of Figs. 2 and 3. Fig. 2 is a vertical longitudinal section on the line II II of Figs. 1 and 3. Fig. 3 is a vertical cross-section on line III III of Figs. 1 and 2. As the details of the drawings are numbered throughout, and the same number always indicates the same part, I cannot more clearly describe the mechanism than by giving the following key to these numbers: Nos. 2 and 3 are the sets of rolls (here shown as three-high rolls, though that is not absolutely necessary). Nos. 4, 4 are the two feed-tables, one on each side of the rolls. The uide frames of the tables are made of parallel channel-bars. Nos. 6, 5 are the feed-rollers, journaled between the channel-bars and provided at their ends with beveled gear-wheels, 6, 6, which mesh with beveled pinions, 7, 7, on shafts, 8, 8, which latter are driven by elevated power-connections, to be mentioned presently. The tracks, 9, 9, on which the supporting-carriages are mounted,

Jan 1, 1891

By A. W. Schlechten, R. P. Abendroth

Equilibrium H2S/4 ratios were determined as functions of temperatunz and composition in a hydrogen recirculation apparatus. A high-temperature solid solution exists in the range two-phase regionfrom TiS 1.96, to TiS1.30, Various thermodynamic quantities were calculated from the data. COMPOUNDS in the titanium -sulfur system have not receiyed much attention in the past, probably because they do not occur naturally in the earth's crust. However, titanium-sulfur compounds have been used in various metallurgical processes. The U.S. Bureau of klines' studied the formation of ti- tanium-sulfide mattes from charges composed of rutile, pyrite, and carbon, with the resulting sulfide matte being chlorinated to form titanium tetrachlo-ride. Fishel, Roe, and Ellis' investigated the de-sulfurizing action of titanium in steels, and Schwarz and Koster studied the preparation of metallic titanium from the sulfide using aluminum and magnesium reduction. The thermodynamic properties of some of the compounds present in the titanium-sulfur system may prove to be of some use in the consideration of future processes using these sulfides, and would

Jan 1, 1960

By B. H. Caudle, B. M. Hickman, I. H. Silberberg

Secondary recovery projects often are not started in oil reservoirs until dictated by rising GOR's or declining oil production. Such circumstances require a well dispersed injection pattern to prevent the oil bank from bypassing the production wells. Many times this purpose is served by using the five-spot or line-drive patterns, in which half of the wells are made injection wells. A regular injection pattern is proposed that is based on the same well spacing as the five-spot but in which only a third of the wells need be converted to injection wells. Fluid flow model studies on this proposed pattern show that production histories will be as good as those for a five-spot pattern at mobility ratios of three and above. The model data are presented in a form that may be used to predict recoveries from both homogeneous and stratified formations. Introduction The injection of fluid into a petroleum reservoir usually is prompted by an actual, or predicted, loss in the productivity of the reservoir. Often, an oil reservoir is produced by pressure depletion until high GOR's dictate a change in policy. Fluid injection also causes increased ultimate recovery, but this usually is of less importance to the operator than is the maintenance of the production rate. It is a fact that the ultimate recovery in any particular fluid injection project is relatively independent of the number and spacing of the injection wells as long as the reservoir voidage through the production wells is balanced by the total injection rate. However, the response of a production well is directly affected by the distance it lies from an injection well. In places where the well productivities are declining, the injection wells should be spaced as evenly as possible among the producing wells ("dispersed" injection pattern). More particularly, if the production response depends upon the formation (and subsequent production) of an oil bank, each production well should be surrounded by injection wells. Otherwise, the oil productivity will increase very little as the oil bank moves past the well.'.' An evenly spaced injection pattern has the best chance of generating an oil kick in the production wells. If reservoir voidage and injection rates are to be equal, the ratio of injection wells to production wells must be equal to the ratio of the average injectivity to the average productivity (in reservoir volumes). This ratio is in strumental in choosing the injection pattern. Table 1 shows the production well to injection well ratio for the dispersed injection patterns that have been described in the literature.'-' All of these patterns will have comparable recoveries and response times (for the same basic distance between wells). The choice of pattern there fore depends upon the relative injectivity and productivity of the wells and upon the type of drilling pattern employed. Another important factor may be the ability of the proposed production wells to make up the lost productivity from those wells converted to injectors. These factors become more pronounced at the higher oil viscosities (low gravity oils). All other things being equal, the probable ratio of single well injectivity to single well productivity will be equal to the water-oil mobility ratio of the proposed flood. Thus, high mobility ratios (due to low gravity oil) should call for fewer injection wells — as long as these injection wells are "dispersed" to obtain more even pro duction response for the remaining wells. Secondary re covery projects in oil reservoirs seldom, if ever, will have mobility ratios requiring more injection wells than production wells. Thus, only the last five of the patterns listed in Table 1 will be of significant interest in oil recovery. Almost every development drilling program calls for the wells to be drilled along equally spaced rows and

Jan 1, 1969

By James Aston

THE origin of wrought iron may be taken as coincident with the earliest record of ferrous products. The limitations of primitive methods of manufacture undoubtedly resulted in a material conforming to the general characteristics of what we now classify as wrought iron. Iron has been known from prehistoric times. It is frequently mentioned in Egyptian literature, and some samples in the British Museum are believed to date from 3733 B. C. Iron instruments, tools and weapons were used in Greece in 1400 B. C., and in Assyria and. Italy in 1100 B. C. History records their use in Central and Western Europe in 1000 B. C. And in Styria and Carinthia before the Christian era. The noted Pillar of Delhi is generally assumed to date from 400 A. D. The use of iron was general in Europe in the Roman Empire, and heat treatment of weapons and tools was then practiced. All of this early iron was the result of direct reduction from the ore. It serves to illustrate the ease with which the extraction may be effected, and to point out the well known principle that a malleable product of relatively high purity may be produced from high-grade iron ore at temperatures well below the fusion point of-the metal. The fact is also emphasized that there is no novelty in the seemingly ideal and constantly recurring attempts to effect direct reduction. Economic and engineering considerations have been dominant factors in dictating today's two-step practice in the manufacture of wrought iron and steel. Bear' in mind that all of this history antedated the blast furnace, and a knowledge and use of cast iron. It was only in attempts to get greater output by use of shaft-type furnaces, that cast iron was produced in Germany in the period 1300 to 1400 A. D. This was the result of longer contact with the carbon of the fuel, and higher temperatures in the furnace. This period marked the beginning of the existing two-stage operation, involving as the second step the refining of the. cast iron to a malleable product. For a time this was effected in small hearths not unlike a blacksmith's forge.

Jan 10, 1926

By Larry Kaufman, Martin Schatz

The effect of pressure on the extension of the ? loop in the FeSi system has been determined by means of metallogvaphic studies and hardness measurements performed on a series of high-purity Fe-Si alloys containing 7.5, 11.0, and 13.9 at. pct Si, respectively. These mensurements, performed at 42 kbar and temperatures up to 1200oC, indicate that the ? loop is expanded to about 10 at. pct Si at 42 kbar as opposed to a maximum extension of 4 at. pct Si at 1 atm. Comparison of the experimental results with thermodynamic predictions of the pressure shifts yields satisfnctory results. DURING the past few years, several studies have been performed in our laboratory1-' in order to determine the effect of high pressure on phase equilibrium in pure iron and iron-base alloys. The purpose of these studies has been to elucidate the effects of high pressure experimentally and to compare the observed results with predicted pressure effects derived on the basis of known thermody-namic and volumetric data at 1 atm. These studies have included work on pure iron2,5,7 as well as Fe-Ni,1,5 Fe-cr,l,5 and Fe-c4-6 alloys. In addition, Tanner and Kulin3 have reported results of pressure studies on two Fe-Si alloys containing 2.0 and 6.25 at. pct Si. At the time of this latter study, no detailed information was available concerning the difference in volume between the a (bcc) and ? (fcc) phases in the Fe-Si system as a function of silicon content. In order to compare their observations with calculated pressure shifts, Tanner and Kulin were forced to assume that silicon had no effect on the difference in volume between a and ? iron. The resulting discrepancy between their calculation of the a/? phase boundary at 42 kbar and the observed results led them to the conclusion that silicon additions probably decrease the difference in volume between a and ? iron. Recently: Cockett and Davis8,9 have reported de- tailed studies of the lattice parameters of a series of Fe-Si alloys at temperatures ranging from 20" to 1150°C. These measurements, performed on alloys in the bcc and fcc range, show that silicon does indeed decrease the difference in volume between a and ? iron. By correcting the calculations of Tanner and Kulin in line with the observed effect of silicon they were able to show improved agreement between computed and observed pressure shifts.' The present measurements were undertaken to provide additional corroboration of this effect, by extending the range of composition, in addition to exploring a situation where large extensions of a ? loop could result in impingement of the ? field with an ordered bcc phase (based on Feo.75Sio.25). I) EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES AND RESULTS The alloys investigated were obtained from Dr. F. Kayser of M.I.T. They were prepared at the Ford Scientific Laboratory by vacuum melting electrolytic iron and high-purity silicon. The melts were poured under an argon atmosphere into hot-topped steel molds. Subsequently the ingots were hot-worked down to 1/2-in.-diam rods. Three alloys containing 7.5, 11.0, and 13.9 pct Si were studied. Carbon, regarded as the principal impurity, analyzed at, or below, 0.001 wt pct for all of the alloys. Prior to pressure-temperature treatment, the rod was annealed for 24 hr in vacuum at 1000°C, water-quenched, and subsequently machined into 0.100-in.-diam by 0.100-in.-long specimens. Subsequent to machining, the specimens were again annealed and then examined metallographically. They were found to exhibit a clear coarse-grained ferrite similar to Figs. 10 and 110 of Ref. 1 and Fig. 2 of Ref. 3. Subsequently, specimens of each alloy were equilibrated at 42 kbar at various temperatures in supported piston apparatus.1,3,4,6 Three specimens, one of each alloy, were wrapped in platinum and exposed simultaneously. The pressure-temperature cycle consisted of increasing the pressure from ambient to 42 kbar at 25oC, heating rapidly to the desired temperature, holding for 15 min, and quenching to 100°C, followed by slower cooling to 25°C and pressure release. The temperature was measured with a Pt/Pt-13 pct Rh thermocouple which was not corrected for pressure effects. Subsequently, specimens were examined metallographically and by

Jan 1, 1964

By F. W. Gordon

The Whitwell firebrick hot-blast stove, for furnace use, may be seen in its three main stages of development in the accompnying drawings. Fig. 1 is the stove of 1869, the year in which it was thoroughly tested at the Consett furnaces, England; Fig. 2, the stove of 1876 and 1877, in which it was intended to reduce the cost by increasing the height; Fig. 3, the stove of 1880. Many modifications were made from time to time, generally in the direction of improvement, but the drawings illustrake the main features of progress. In the stove of 1869 the plan was to introduce the gas at A, and pass it up and down between each alternate wall, the air in the reverse direction, passing in at B. The friction in this stove was so great, owing to the restricted area of the passages and the many revervals of the gaseous current, that it was deemed imprudent to build the stoves higher than 28' 6". Another reason mas that the great importance of cleaning was carefully kept in view, and it was very difficult to operate any hand scraper even to this depth. For these reasons the 22' X 28½' stove held the field for several yearn. A slight change made from this was to the 18' X 40' stove, where the height was increased, but the dumber of walls diminished. In this stove the friction was somewhat reduced, but so was the heating surface, and although it cost a little lea it was not any better. The next important change, seen in Fig. 2, was by increasing the height to GO feet and keeping the full number of walls in the stove. The heating surface and mass were much increased in proportion to the cost, and the friction decremed by alterllating over and under two or more walls, instead of one, as formerly. This stove gave admirable satisfactiou, but, although the proper doors were provided, it was very difticult to clean, owing to the long (distance the scrapers lid to traverse. Stove No. 3 is a modification of No. 2. The great question was how to decrease the cost mithotlt impairing in any yaw the

Jan 1, 1881

By F. W. Gordon

THE Whitwell firebrick hot-blast stove, for furnace use, may be seen in its three, main stages of development in the accompanying drawings. Fig. 1 is the stove of 1869, the, year in which it was thoroughly tested at the Consett furnaces, England; Fig. 2, the stove of 1876 and 1877, in which it was intended to reduce the-cost by increasing the height; Fig. 3, the stove of 1880. Many modifications were made from time to time, generally in the direction of improvement, but the drawings illustrate the main features of progress. In the stove of 1869 the plan was to introduce the gas at A, and pass it up and down. between each alternate wall, the air in the reverse direction, passing in at B. The friction in this stove was so great, owing to the. restricted area of the passages and the many reversals of the gaseous current, that it was deemed imprudent to build the stoves higher than 28' 6'". Another reason was that the great importance of cleaning was carefully kept in view, and it was very difficult to operate any hand scraper even to this depth. For these reasons the 22' X 28 1/2' stove held the field for several years. A slight change made from this was to the 18' X 40' stove, where the height was increased, but the number of walls diminished. In this stove the friction was somewhat reduced, but so was the heating surface, and although it cost a little less it was not any better. The next important change, seen in Fig. 2, was by increasing the height to 60 feet and keeping the full number of walls in the stove. The heating surface and mass were much increased in proportion to the cost, and the friction decreased by alternating over and under two or more walls, instead of one, as formerly. This stove gave admirable satisfaction, but; although the proper doors were provided, it was very difficult to clean, owing to the long distance the scrapers had to traverse. Stove No. 3 is a modification of No. 2. The great question was how to decrease the cost without impairing in any yaw the

Jan 1, 1881

By C. A. Stout, S. W. Nicksic

The materials that stubilize emulsions of some Southern California crude oils were isolated from the produced crude. These substances were separated into acidic and nonionic fractions by ion exchange chromatography. Each fraction was further broken into groups of homogeneous molecular weight composition by gel permeation chromatography. Both ionic character and molecular weight of the individual fractions are reflected in the properties of the original crude oil emulsion. Specifically, the more acidic and the higher molecular weight fractions appear to be the most effective stabilizers. INTRODUCTION The treatment of oilfield emulsions is a continuing problem for the oil industry. In almost all cases, these are water-in-oil emulsions. Much more is known about the formation and stabilization of oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions than of the water-in-oil (W/O) type. To understand W/O emulsions, more information is needed on the materials responsible for their formation and stabilization. This is especially true in the case of oilfield emulsions where the stabilizing materials are complex mixtures of large asphaltene-like molecules. To study the chemical and physical properties of these emulsion stabilizers, it is necessary first to separate them from crude oil. This separation was achieved in the case of two Southern California crude oils. The materials that were isolated appear at first to be little different from an asphaltene mixture. However, if a mixture of distilled water and mineral oil containing about 1 percent of the natural emulsion stabilizers is passed through a colloid mill, the W/O emulsion formed may be stored in the laboratory for many months without any sign of breaking. This could not be done using undifferentiated asphaltenes from the same wells, indicating that there is a real difference between these materials and ordinary asphaltenes. The colloid mill used to generate the emulsion was required because tile natural emulsion stabilizers had very little effect on oil-water interfacial tension. The one characteristic — complexity of composition — that emulsion stabilizers share with asphaltenes makes virtually impossible the exact structure determination of the components of the mixture. For this reason, it was decided to investigate first the influence of molecular weight on the ability of these materials to stabilize emulsions. The emulsion stabilizers were first separated into acidic and neutral fractions according to whether or not the material was retained on a weakly basic ion exchange column. The extraction procedure was not designed to remove basic components from tile oils, and no attempt to isolate such a fraction was made. Following this separation, selected fractions were analyzed by gel permeation chromatography. Gel permeation separates according to molecular size, largely independently of chemical or polar characteristics. A heterogeneous mixture is separated into a number of fractions having much more homogeneous molecular weight distribution. A number average molecular weight of each fraction is therefore close to the true molecular weight of the principal component of that fraction. The fraction weights, expressed as weight percent of the sample, and the number average molecular weight of a representative selection of the fractions, will be referred to in this paper as the molecular weight profile of the original sample. DESCRIPTION OF GEL PERMEATION ANALYSIS The first reported gel permeation analyses were for separating partially hydrolyzed protein molecules in an aqueous system using expanded starch granules. Most of the theoretical work on gel permeation has been done by biochemists.1 This theoretical treatment is still incomplete, but the

Jan 1, 1969

By Jon E. Fatzinger

The design of a centrifugal slurry pump is approached as a compromise between efficiency and wear life of the wetted parts. This compromise is effected by the choice of proper materials of construction and geometry. However even the most optimally designed pump will fail if due consideration is not given to its installation and operation. System head curves and hydraulic profiles are discussed as useful tools to be used in the operational analysis of a slurry system.

Jan 1, 1978

By Alfred Brooks

Introduction PETROLEUM seepages are known in Alaska at four localities, all on Pacific seaboard. These, named from east to west, are Yakataga, Katalla on Controller Bay, Iniskin Bay on Cook Inlet, and Cold Bay on the Alaska Peninsula. Besides these, a petroleum residue has been found near Smith Bay on the north Arctic coast of the Territory. At Katalla, Cold Bay, and Iniskin Bay there has been some drilling for oil, and in the first field several productive wells have been opened up. Alaskan petroleum so far as its composition is known, is a refining oil, with paraffin base and low sulphur content. Most of what is known of the geology of Alaska oil fields is based on the investigations of Dr. George C. Martin, of the United States Geological Survey. A. G. Maddren, of the same service, has recently made a reconnaissance of the Yakataga oil field. The data to be here presented are chiefly taken from the following publications: G. C. Martin: The Petroleum Fields of the. Pacific Coast of Alaska, with an account of the Bering River coal deposits, Bulletin No. 250, U. S. Geological Survey, pp. 9 to 27 (1905). G. C. Martin: Geology and Mineral Resources of the Controller Bay Region, Alaska, Bulletin No. 335, U. S. Geological Survey, pp. 112 to 130 (1908). G. C. Martin and F. J. Katz: A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Iliamna Region, Alaska, Bulletin No. 485, U. S. Geological. Survey, pp. 126 to 130 (1912). A. G. Maddren: Mineral Deposits of the Yakataga District, Bulletin No. 592,. U. S. Geological Survey, pp. 143 to 147 (1914).

Jan 2, 1915

Discussion of the papers of FREDERICH LAIST and HAROLD W. ALDRICH, FREDERICH LAIST and F. F. FRICK, W. L. AUSTIN, and STUART CROASDALE, presented at the Salt Lake meeting, August, 1914, and printed in Bulletins No. 91 and 92, July, and August, 1914. R. C. CANBY, Wallingford, Conn. (communication to the Secretary*). -Apropos of the experimental reduction of copper from cuprous chloride by fusion with ground limestone and coke, as described by Messrs. Laist and Frick, and also proposed for use at Chuquicamata., it might be of interest to refer briefly to the experience at Argentine, Kan., in the smelting of the suboxide of copper (as produced in the Hunt and Douglas process) containing appreciable quantities of chlorides. In the Engineering and Mining Journal of June 10, 1911, I. gave some account of what had appeared to be crucial difficulties with the Hunt and Douglas process, and how the filter-press difficulty had been so rapidly overcome after my discovery of the effect of the sodium salts in the leaching solutions. I also described the effect of the cupola furnace gases upon the lime rock with which I had replaced the coke in the absorption tower, which apparently showed the presence of considerable-chlorine, clue to the imperfect conversion of the subchloride to suboxide, as well as that clue to the difficulties of washing thoroughly the suboxide with the means provided, and also to the presence of chlorides in the cement copper which was smelted With the suboxide. The fumes from the cupola, when issuing direct into the atmosphere, were very dense and white, except when a hot furnace top caused a reddish tinge due to dust. These, fumes had a peculiarly suffocating effect, so that when they were blown over into the town the population suffered the greatest actual distress, not the mere annoyance which would have been clue to a disagreeable odor. The absorption tower had been built at the instance of the city authorities to abate this nuisance, and not with the idea of making any additional metal savings. A serious feature in connection with the Argentine experience with the Hunt and Douglas process was, that it had been implicitly assumed that there could be no metal loss in the Hunt and Douglas process itself, and that all attempts to locate the ruinous copper losses which were accumulating in the metallurgical accounts were devoted to the roasting department. It is possibly unfortunate for metallurgical advance along these particular lines that just about the time of this discovery of this previously unsuspected volatilization loss, in the smelting of the suboxide, the Kansas City company made a contract with the Western Union Telegraph Co. for its supply of copper sulphate and the Hunt and Douglas

Jan 11, 1914