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By N. Shiarella, Coleman D. Hunter, I. B. Browning

The price of crude oil in Kentucky did not change very much during 1935 until the latter part of the year, but more stabilized conditions and an increase in consumption of natural gas made the year a more profitable one than the year 1934. The production of crude oil in 1935 amounted to 5,175,054 bbl. as compared to 4,814,904 bbl. in 1934. This increase was due to two developments: (1) the application of new recovery methods to old fields, which, although in operation in the state for several years, had never before reached a point where the production obtained, while highly satisfactory where applied, was sufficient to influence the totals in the production figures; (2) the development of the Fordsville area in Ohio County, where shallow depths enabled the operators to complete the development of a large number of wells with a good flush production probably accounted for most of the increase. A map showing the location of oil and gas pools in Kentucky was published last year.' The fields of eastern Kentucky, producing from the Weir sand of the Waverly group of the Lower Mississippian series, in Johnson, Magoffin, Lawrence and Elliott counties, produced 826,001 bbl. of oil in 1935 as compared with 902,247 bbl. in the previous year. No new wells were drilled in this area during the year, except those for use as intake wells in repressuring. What has been done in the few small areas within these fields in the way of repressuring has produced results sufficient to a great extent to offset the natural decline of all the field. It is probable the drilling of new wells and construction of new plants will be such as to cause these fields to produce more in 1936 than was produced in the past year. This is based on the fact that the sand is highly favorable for repressuring and the results obtained show from 300 to 500 per cent increase in production. From the "Corniferous" pools, where production is from the Cornifer-ous limestone of Devonian age, in Lee, Powell, Estill, Wolfe, Morgan and

Jan 1, 1936

By I. B. Browning, N. Shiarella, Coleman D. Hunter

The price of crude oil in Kentucky did not change very much during 1935 until the latter part of the year, but more stabilized conditions and an increase in consumption of natural gas made the year a more profitable one than the year 1934. The production of crude oil in 1935 amounted to 5,175,054 bbl. as compared to 4,814,904 bbl. in 1934. This increase was due to two developments: (1) the application of new recovery methods to old fields, which, although in operation in the state for several years, had never before reached a point where the production obtained, while highly satisfactory where applied, was sufficient to influence the totals in the production figures; (2) the development of the Fordsville area in Ohio County, where shallow depths enabled the operators to complete the development of a large number of wells with a good flush production probably accounted for most of the increase. A map showing the location of oil and gas pools in Kentucky was published last year.' The fields of eastern Kentucky, producing from the Weir sand of the Waverly group of the Lower Mississippian series, in Johnson, Magoffin, Lawrence and Elliott counties, produced 826,001 bbl. of oil in 1935 as compared with 902,247 bbl. in the previous year. No new wells were drilled in this area during the year, except those for use as intake wells in repressuring. What has been done in the few small areas within these fields in the way of repressuring has produced results sufficient to a great extent to offset the natural decline of all the field. It is probable the drilling of new wells and construction of new plants will be such as to cause these fields to produce more in 1936 than was produced in the past year. This is based on the fact that the sand is highly favorable for repressuring and the results obtained show from 300 to 500 per cent increase in production. From the "Corniferous" pools, where production is from the Cornifer-ous limestone of Devonian age, in Lee, Powell, Estill, Wolfe, Morgan and

Jan 1, 1936

By L. L. Handy

Two equations are compared for calculating imbibi-tion rates of water into porous media. A linear relation was found to apply when the square of the volume of water imbibed was plotted against time for water imbibing in natural rock materials. The effect of adsorbed organic materials on surface wettability was determined from measurements of rate of imbibition, water saturation and water permeability. INTRODUCTION An understanding of the mechanisms by which water displaces oil from porous media requires an understanding of the role of capillary forces in the displacement process. The capillary forces are determined by properties of the water-oil-solid surfaces. Consequently, some measure of the surface properties of reservoir rocks is necessary if displacement behavior in oil reservoirs is to be predicted from laboratory measurements. Several experimental procedures have been proposed to assign quantitative wettability indexes to reservoir rock surfaces. The most recent of these proposals are those of Bobek, Mattox and Denekas' and Amott.' These indexes are designed to show a continuous variation from the preferential oil-wet to the preferential water-wet systems. They require measuring some property of the rock which is a function of surface wettability. The quantities are measured on unaltered core material and compared with values obtained for known oil-wet and water-wet extremes on the same material. These methods are useful but are semi-empirical in nature. They have the disadvantage that the measured quantities may be functions of other variables in addition to surface wettability. Some understanding of the behavior of water-oil-rock systems may be obtained from studies of the simpler water-air-rock systems. Surfaces of a given wettability are more easily maintained for the latter. Also, certain approximations can be made for the flow of water and air which are not justified for water-oil flow. The theoretical and experimental work discussed in this paper is part of a study of the role of capillarity in the dynamic displacement of air by water. The expec- tation is that observations for the water-air system will lead to generalizations which are applicable to water-oil systems. THEORY Imbibition is defined as that process by which one fluid displaces another from a porous medium as a result of capillary forces only. Differential equations have been derived to describe the displacement of oil by water during imbibition, but these equations have not been solved.".' With certain assumptions, however, solutions are possible for water-air imbibition.

By W. Hurst, R. E. Leeser, W. C. Goodson

Three aspects of gas deliverability are presented in this paper. The first treats with the gas deliverability or availability of a normal depletion-type dry gas field. Such encompasses not only the period of stabilized constant rate, but more so, the "tailings" when a fixed abandonment pressure is reached and the rate by necessity must decline. A comprehensive work plot is offered, developed from mathematics herein included, that removes the triai-and-errnr computations that attended such undertakings in the past. The second part treats with the discount factor of the open flow potential constant from what is observed initially in testing a gas well to what is evidenced when stabilization is reached. This prevails in tight formations, such as the Kansas Hugoton field which is offered as the example. The means of establishing this factor are pressure build-up curves which, as sustained by analytical deductions, reproduce this entire period of transient flow under conditions of a constant rate influx. Finally, what is offered in this paper is the deliverability performance of an exceedingly rich gas condensate field producing from a tight formation. The example shown is the Knox Bromide field in Oklahoma, producing from the Bromide formations. The results are ominous, showing early reduction in permeability to gas pow, due to the retrograde condensate forming in the pore space, with the attending early logging-up of these wells. The analytics of lowered permeability are incorporated in the gas deliverability formula along with the PVT data that gives the increased condensate liquid saturation as the gas flows to the well bore. This paper would not be complete without a critique oflered at the end. With the many gas wells now in production and those that have completed their life, there has been no factual information collected by any source as to what constitutes that permeability range where a gas well would be unimpaired in its gas deliverability by the presence of rich condensate content, and the lowered range where such would be harmful. This question confronts all producers. INTRODUCTION Various aspects of gas deliverability are presented in this paper that includes depletion-type reservoirs, deteriora- tion factor of the gas deliverability constant, and the performance of a rich gas condensate reservoir producing from a tight sand. With respect to the presentation of gas deliverability and its tailings for depletion-type gas reservoirs, one notes that this is essentially the information offered by every gas transmission company and producer appearing before the Federal Power Commission for Letters of Conveyance in the dedication of reserves. In the ordinary procedure, as many engage upon this study, trial-and-error calculations are included, particularly as apply to the tailings. For many years one of the writers has employed mathematical analyses to perform this step and avoid the complexities so associated. In the preparation of this paper these analyses have been amplified to include any slope n for the open flow potential relationship for which the tailings can be determined from Fig. 1. With reference to the deterioration or discount factor of the open flow potential constant as such occurs in the gas deliverability formula, this for the most part has been an unexplored subject. Although the issue first appeared in the Kansas Hugoton field, where such was surmised but only recently resolved, this situation of a deterioration of the gas deliverability constant can occur wherever dry gas production from a tight sand is encountered. The first concerted attacks upon this problem were the presentations of Hurst' and Goodson' before the Kansas Corporation Commission to show that transient fluid flow and unsteady-state flow formulas prevailed. This was amplified later before the Federal Power Commission3 to show that this deterioration factor could be identified from pressure build-up curves. This has been reported by McMahon.4 Its importance to the industry merits the review of these essential features in completing the program on the aspects of gas deliverability. Finally, as illustrated here, for a low permeability formation such as the Knox Bromide field where the gas is rich, representing some 165 bbl of condensate per MMcf of effluent gas, the gas deliverability can be of limited extent in the life of the field, leaving substantial amounts of condensate and gas unrecovered. In cases such as this, gas cycling is mandatory. This is particularly revealed by the fluid mechanics introduced here, employing factual field as well as laboratory data, to show this-restriction upon gas deliverability. PRESSURE DEPLETION What will now be offered is the study of gas deliver-

By E. I. Salkovitz, F. W. von Batchelder

AS Slawson1 and others have already shown, from a geometrical view twinning in the diamond structure may be considered as a reflection across a (111) plane or as a reflection across a (112) plane. An analysis by Ellis and Treuting2 showed that the twinning plane must be the (111) plane, but that a twin might have lateral boundaries along (112) planes. Earlier Slawson1 and Ellis3 had shown that only (111) twinning was present in diamond and germanium respectively. Since an ingot of silicon, 1 in. in diam and 1 1/2 in. long, prepared from Dupont silicon to which 0.2 pct Be had been added was available, it was examined for twinning. The ingot had been cooled slowly from the bottom. A section 1/16 in. thick was ground off from the bottom and then the ingot was sliced vertically through the center. Spectrographic analysis indicated only faint traces of iron and silver, in addition to the beryllium. The sample was first etched with a hot solution of 10 pct NaOH in water.and photographed. Back-reflection Laue patterns were made of the vertical and horizontal sections in the regions designated in Fig. 1. Orientations were obtained for each twin using the Greninger technique. Several regions of the same orientation were found; thus regions A and K were identical, similarly N and P, and C, G, J, and L. Knowing the angles between the traces of the twinning plane on the surface and the specimen axis, the indices of the twinning plane were deduced. In all cases the twinning plane was found to be (111); lateral boundaries, however, were found which were (112) such as the one indicated in Fig. 1. Therefore, as in the case of diamond1 and germanium' only (111) twinning occurs in silicon. We wish to thank Mr. Hino for the use of the ingot as well as for its metallographic preparation. References 1C. B. Slawson: American Mineralogist (1950) 35, p. 193. 2 W. C. Ellis and R. C. Treuting: Trans. AIME (1951) 191, p. 53; Journal of Metals (January 1951). 3W. C. Ellis: Trans. AIME (1950) 188, p. 886; Journal of Metals (June 1950).

Jan 1, 1953

By A. Yoshikawa, T. Sugeno

To detenmine the origin of the sharp fatigue limit in many ferrous metals, S-N curvces were determined in push-pull fatigue at 18.6 kc per sec at room temperature and - 67°C for various kinds of iron. These differed in carbon and nitrogen content and grain size (25 and 2500 grains per sq mm). Sharp knees appeared in the S-N curves of fine-grained specimens with high interstitial content at both temperatures. In coarse-gruined specimens, knees were not sharp .regardless of the interstitial content and the testing temperature. It is concluded from these results that the controlling factov for the appeavance of the sharp fatigue limit is not strain aging but grain size. It has already been mentioned that iron and some iron alloys show fatigue curves characterized by a more or less sharp knee and a fatigue limit.' Explanations of the origin of this characteristic behavior of fatigue in iron appear to fall into two broad classes. One is concerned with interstitial impurities through the aging or locking effect and the other is based on intrinsic plastic properties of iron. Levy and sinclair2 and Lipsit and Horne3 have suggested that the fatigue limit observed generally in iron and steel is due to interstitial solute aging during the course of fatigue. On the other hand, Thompson and wadsworthl have suggested that the fatigue limit may be analogous to the sharp yield point, in the sense that alternating stresses above the fatigue limit are necessary to break down the dislocation locking. However, there are some experimental results which cast doubt on the general validity of these suppositions.4-8 Ferro and Montalenti' have recently suggested that the typical form of the fatigue curve of iron seems to come from an intrinsic plastic characteristic of the iron structure. This suggestion is based on the experimental result that pure iron containing an insufficient amount of interstitial solute to alldw appreciable strain-aging effects still showed a fatigue limit at room temperature. Although systematic investigations on the effect of grain size are scarce, it is thought that this effect is important in relation to the sharp fatigue limit. In fact, sensible differences were observed by Oates and Wilson4 in fatigue behaviors of a low-carbon steel depending on grain size. Ideally, the fatigue limit will be defined as the upper limit of stress amplitudes at which the life is infinite. This ideal fatigue limit can never be determined because of the limited time available for experiments, and moreover scattered data points often leave the construction of S-N curves somewhat arbitrary. And, it is usually stated that a material has a fatigue limit when its statistical S-N curve becomes apparently parallel to the N axis with a more or less sharp knee. The meaning of the fatigue limit and the sharp knee will be discussed in detail in relation to the construction of S-N curves. The origin of this sharp knee was investigated by determining S-N curves of iron for various interstitial contents, testing temperatures, and grain sizes. EXPERTMENTAL PROCEDURE The material as received was a commercial-grade low-carbon steel in the form of 4-mm-diameter rods with the following composition in weight percent: C, 0.09; Si, 0.017; Mn, 0.43; P, 0.006; S, 0.012; Cu, 0.11. Five different groups of specimens were tested. The grain sizes and interstitial contents in each group are given in Table I. The specimens of group C-02 were decarburized by annealing for 100 hr at 700°C, followed by an additional 100 hr at 850°C in wet hydrogen. Specimens of groups N-2 and N-9 nitrided in a mixed atmosphere of ammonia and hydrogen after an initial treatment identical to group C-02. The specimens of group C-9 were prepared in a manner similar to those of group C-02, except heat treatment was carried out in a vacuum. After polishing their surface with emery paper, the specimens of all groups were given a final anneal for 30 min at 930°C and air-cooled in an evacuated quartz tube. For group C*-9 this

Jan 1, 1965

By Carl Henrich

A.. S. DWIGHT, New York, N. Y.-Mr. Henrich's paper is rather inconclusive as to the role that alumina really plays in slags. He gives a number of interesting instances of high alumina, with conclusions that he draws from the analyses, in the light of what he knows of the accompanying conditions, but the information given is hardly sufficient to permit intelligent criticism of these conclusions, for it is well known that the slag composition is not the only factor that can produce some of the furnace results favorable or disastrous, as the case may be, which he records. As a matter of fact, most metallurgists who have wrestled with this problem in connection with the smelting of lead and copper ores, usually arrived at some sort of a working hypothesis which met the local conditions fairly well, and then, being busy men, were inclined 'to leave the theoretical question very much as Mr: Henrich leaves it when he says: "A question with which I purpose dealing at some future time." It is unfortunate that in the Golden Age of the smelting industry in the West, when we were all dealing with large tonnages of complex ores, often containing large percentages of alumina in combination with other. refractory elements, the smelting companies were not generally equipped for research as they are today, and much experience that might have been,

Jan 4, 1917

By F. R. Cattoir, R. W. Kimball, C. T. Anderson

ONE of the principal impurities in all steels is sulphur. Sulphur-bearing, manganese-free steels exhibit hot shortness. Manganese is added to steel to improve the hot-working properties. If no sulphur were present in steel, it is probable that hot shortness would be nonexistent. This paper is the first of a series to be issued by this Laboratory reporting the measurements of hot forgeability tests and the physical properties of Fe-C alloys to which additions of various alloying elements have been made. The present paper describes the results- obtained by the addition of varying amounts of sulphur to Fe-C alloys. To obtain control over residual elements in the various charges melted in the arc furnace, it was considered advantageous to use sponge iron from one source as the melting stock rather than scrap metal having an unknown history. Small amounts of unwanted alloying elements might be introduced into the charge when scrap was used, thereby influencing the results of the various heats. A sponge iron having a high silica-lime ratio was used. Ore from Sunrise, Wyo., had been reduced to sponge iron and briquetted at the Bureau of Mines sponge-iron plant at Laramie, Wyo. The briquettes were 5 in. in diam and 2 to 3 in. in thickness, and weighed about 10 lb each. The chemical analysis of the sponge iron is as follows: C, 0.67 pct; Mn, 0.10; SiO2, 4.75; CaO, 1.4; P, 0.044; S, 0.72; MgO, 0.4; A12O3, 1.1; total Fe, 87.5; Fe metallic, 79.2; and reduction, 90.5 pct. Where a reducing agent was required, crushed graphite electrodes usually were used. The charcoal available contained 0.20 pct S. An analysis of the available coke showed it to contain 0.70 pct S. Where high sulphur heats were required, elemental sulphur additions were made to the ladle. Limestone of good quality was obtained locally and had the following analysis: CaO, 53.7 pct; MgO, 0.8; ignition loss, 42.4; R2O3, 0.2; SiO2, 3.0; and P2O5, 0.014. Melting Procedure Sponge iron was melted to produce metal stock for the experimental alloys in a silica-lined, three-phase, direct-arc, size ST, Moore Rapid Lectromelt furnace with a 500 kva rating. Fig. 1 shows this furnace installation. About 25 tons of sponge iron was melted in 75 heats, averaging 927 lb of sponge iron to the heat. An addition of carbon was required to complete the reduction of a portion of the iron oxide remaining in the sponge to prevent high losses of iron oxide in the slag and a low carbon content in the resulting metal. As reducing agents in preparing the melting stock, charcoal, coke, and a carbon product resulting from the thermal decomposition of natural gas were used. The quantity varied from 20 to 60 Ib per furnace charge, with an average of 38 lb. An average analysis of the metal obtained gave 0.52 pct C, about 0.01 pct Mn, 0.070 pct P, and 0.092 pct S. The average yield of metal was 647 lb with 241 1b of slag, the sponge-iron recovery being 70 pct. The metal obtained in melting the sponge iron was cast into pigs weighing about 20 lb each to facilitate recharging into the furnace for further refining. The pouring of the pigs is shown in Fig. 2. The average power consumption for the production of the 24 tons of metal obtained was 1704 kw-hr per ton.

Jan 1, 1954

By Sanai Nakabe

Japanese wartime economy demanded domestic cobalt production. This paper describes a process operated for two years at the Besshi mine and smelter on extremely low grade (0.1 pct Co) pyrite concentrates obtained from copper ore. 'The steps in the process were roasting, leaching, precipitation, reduction fusion to crude cobalt, and finally refining by electrolysis to 99+ pct. COBALT ore deposits in Japan are all small and of poor grade. In the past, a small amount of cobalt has been produced from the best portions of a few of these deposits, and very little production is expected in the future. In addition to these lean cobalt ores, cobalt is present in the cupriferous pyrite which is fairly abundant although of low grade, as is shown in Table I. Considerable cobalt is expected from these deposits because of their extent. Cobalt cannot be exclusively recovered economically from ore of this type; however, if means could be devised to recover it as a byproduct of copper production, a fairly large production at reasonable cost could be expected from Japanese sources. It was along this line that the research work was done. Selection of Suitable Process The process for extracting cobalt differs from ore to ore according to their composition. The difficulty in cobalt metallurgy arises from the fact that chemically cobalt resembles many such common metals as Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, and Zn, associated with it in the ores. In the present case the most serious difficulties were: 1—Extremely low grade ore, 0.1 pct Co. 2—The large proportion of iron accompanying cobalt and its close similarity in chemical behavior. 3—The fairly large proportion of zinc and manganese and their chemical similarity to cobalt. The recovery of cobalt oxide as a byproduct of the hydrometallurgy of copper had been attempted in Japan but was stopped after a short period because it proved uneconomical. The literature disclosed no method for the recovery of cobalt from cobaltiferous copper pyrite and it was therefore necessary to devise a new process. The following basic principles were considered in selecting the process: 1—A major alteration in copper production methods should not be necessary. 2—The first step should be the extraction of cobalt leaving the large quantity of iron unaffected. For this purpose wet metallurgy would be preferred.

Jan 1, 1952

By Messrs. von Jonstorff

Continued Discussion of the Paper of Messrs. von Jonstorff, Blair, Dillner and Stead, presented at the New York Meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, October, 1904.* (Bethlehem Meeting, February, 1906.) CLEMENS C. JONES, Richmond, Va. (communication to the Secretary+) :-In the chapter of this paper entitled "Method for the Determination of Phosphorus," by Andrew A. Blair, a form of the reductor used by Mr. Blair is illustrated. This form was employed by me in my earliest experiments, and abandoned after my adoption of the final apparatus described in my paper on the subject in 1889. The results reported by Mr. Blair are very closely accordant; but my experience was that, in the use of this form, a loss of the solution, amounting to almost a cubic centimeter, was occasioned by minute bubbles of hydrogen rising to the surface, and there exploding. My final reductor was designed to prevent this loss; and the most satisfactory results were obtained with a reductor having the open cup replaced by a bulb-shaped receptacle, provided with a glass stopper, similar to that of a separatory funnel of similar capacity, as suggested in a foot-note in my original paper. In my experience, the use of this later form of reductor repeatedly gave duplicate results which were, coincident to the fourth decimal place. R. W. RAYMOND, New York, N. Y.:-The. remarks of Mr. Jones recall to my mind an interesting part of the history of the Institute, and, of its relation to modern progress in the department covered by this interesting and valuable paper. In

Mar 1, 1906

By David Moskowitz, Ira Binder, Robert Steinitz

THE hard refractory borides of the transition elements of the 4th, 5th, and 6th groups of the Periodic System have been the subject of a number of recent investigations.'-' It is well known now that most of these elements form several different borides, and Kiessling8 has summarized the rules which govern to some extent the arrangements of the boron atoms in the various structures. Melting points of a few borides have been published." The systems Fe-B, Ni-B, and Co-B have been reported," but, as these borides are rather low melting, they are outside of the groups of boron compounds considered here. Brewer' has tested the stability of various borides and estimated a number of eutectic temperatures between different borides, but in no case was the complete system of a transition metal and boron investigated. The phase diagram becomes of special importance if the preparation of the borides from the elements in powdered form is considered; the lowest eutectic temperature will determine the first appearance of a liquid phase. Also, the knowledge of high temperature phases, if they exist, is important for the preparation of bodies from these borides by hot pressing or sintering. During the investigation of various metal borides,7 it was found that there were more boride phases existing in the Mo-B system than reported by Kiessling." They occur, however, only at temperatures above 1500°C and were, therefore, not found by him. This led to a study of the equilibrium diagram of the Mo-B system. ranging from 0 to 25 pct B and from room temperature to the liquidus. Part of this investigation was reported during the "Research in Progress" session at the 1952 Annual Meeting of the AIME.11 Raw Materials and Preparation of the Borides The raw materials used were commercial molybdenum and boron powder, both supplied by the Molybdenum Corp. of America. The molybdenum powder was 99+ pct pure? while the boron powder contained about 83 to 85 pct B. A large percentage of the impurities in this powder was oxygen, with the rest formed by iron, calcium, and unknown substances. The low purity of the boron used was, however, not considered detrimental to the final product, as most of the impurities evaporated at the high temperatures at which the borides were formed. The final product always had a minimum purity of 96 to 98 pct (figured as molybdenum and boron), with carbon, iron, and probably oxygen being the remaining products. Carbon is usually present as graphite. The chemical analyses always confirmed the compositions which corresponded to the crystallographic structures as determined by X-ray diffraction, and the boron content of the finished product agreed closely with that of the starting mixture; no boron was lost during the boride preparation. The chemical analysis methods employed for molybdenum and boron were previously described by Blumenthal.12,13 The powders were mixed by hand in the desired proportions, compressed at room temperature under low pressure, and then heated under hydrogen to about 1500" to 1700°C in a graphite crucible to form the borides. Usually, the three well-known borides Mo,B, MOB, and Mo,B,, which are stable at room temperatures, were prepared in this way, and all other compositions were made by mixing these borides in various ratios or by the addition of molybdenum or boron powders for the very low or very high boron contents. Preparation of two-phase compositions directly from the elemental powders was tried only occasionally to check whether equilibrium could be reached in this way. Experimental Procedures The stable borides were mixed in the desired ratios and heated under hydrogen in graphite crucibles to various temperatures. The well insulated crucibles were heated in a high frequency induction furnace. Special care was taken to obtain exact temperature measurement, which proved much more difficult than originally anticipated. It is believed that individual temperature measurements have an error of less than ±25ºC, while melting or transformation temperatures are accurate within ±50°C. The temperatures were measured with an optical pyrometer which was aimed at the closed end of a graphite tube extending down into the crucible. close to the samples. Attempts to measure directly through the hydrogen exit stack failed. The crucible arrangement is shown in Fig. 1. Heating was done at a slow rate to be sure that the temperature inside the crucible was uniform. The specimens were kept at the final temperature for about 30 min. For the investigation of high temperature phases, some samples were quenched. They were heated, without atmosphere protection, in a very small graphite crucible which could be rapidly removed from the high frequency coil, and dropped into water. These quenched samples were afterwards annealed to establish the equilibrium at lower temperatures. The melting points or the positions of the solidus and liquidus lines were determined by heating the specimens to various temperatures and examining them at room temperature for evidence of a liquid phase. These results were checked later on by thermal arrest curves, especially to determine the exact position of the eutectic temperature line. For this purpose about 200 g of the boride were melted in a graphite crucible, in an arrangement similar to Fig. 1. Slow cooling was assured by very good

Jan 1, 1953

By George C. Lipsey

FOR many years the mining of coal and other minerals occurring in sedimentary formation has been planned according to information obtained by diamond drilling. Placer mines have used churn drills for sampling and estimating deposits, and some metal mines have used the method either wholly or in part. The diamond drill method, therefore, although not entirely new, has come into more prominence in the last few years. Several large-scale developments now being planned or in the production stage have used this method in varying degree. This paper will describe the operations of the Howe Sound Exploration Co., Ltd. at Snow Lake, Manitoba, where a gold mine was developed and equipped for mining and milling wholly on the basis of diamond drilling results. The property has been in operation nearly 3 years, so that results can be compared with the estimates and assumptions made from the diamond drilling. In developing the subject it is necessary to outline as briefly as possible the normal method of mining, from discovery to production stage. Table I sets forth these various stages, the methods of financing, the percentage of total cost, and the relative time interval required for each section of the work. The plan presented in this table cannot be applied to all mining developments, but it gives a basis on which to work. In Stages 2 and 3 the investment is moderate, and if the property does not respond favorably the options or interests can be terminated. Stage 4 represents a sizeable investment, and it is more difficult to drop the property after this part of the operation is completed. Stages 2, 3, and 4 may be repeated several times by diflerent groups or companies before Stage 5 is reached, but when Stage 5 has been started the total capital investment must be provided and there can be no turning back. It will be noted that there is a total of 116 units of investment in the overall cost if one company proceeds with Stages 2, 3, 4, and 5 in order. Stage 4, however, consumes time which is important when markets are being considered. Bringing a property into production when metal prices are low is much more difficult than when the prices are high, and if this stage can be set aside production is attained more quickly. When Stage 4 is eliminated the total becomes 86 units of cost for Stages 2, 3, and 5, but an adjustment of 14 units must be added to Stage 5. These 14 units represent the useable value of Stage 4. Thus Stage 4 represents an investment of 30 units if carried on before Stage 5, but 14 units if included with Stage 5. This is accounted for by the fact that development work can be accomplished more cheaply under Stage 5, since everything that is done is planned on a production basis with permanent services. Stage 4 must of necessity be governed by expenditures, and a great many temporary services, including housing and power plants, must be provided. The prospect shaft is a small one, and drifts,

Jan 1, 1953

By George C. Lipsey

FOR many years the mining of coal and other minerals occurring in sedimentary formation has been planned according to information obtained by diamond drilling. Placer mines have used churn drills for sampling and estimating deposits, and some metal mines have used the method either wholly or in part. The diamond drill method, therefore, although not entirely new, has come into more prominence in the last few years. Several large-scale developments now being planned or in the production stage have used this method in varying degree. This paper will describe the operations of the Howe Sound Exploration Co., Ltd. at Snow Lake, Manitoba, where a gold mine was developed and equipped for mining and milling wholly on the basis of diamond drilling results. The property has been in operation nearly 3 years, so that results can be compared with the estimates and assumptions made from the diamond drilling. In developing the subject it is necessary to outline as briefly as possible the normal method of mining, from discovery to production stage. Table I sets forth these various stages, the methods of financing, the percentage of total cost, and the relative time interval required for each section of the work. The plan presented in this table cannot be applied to all mining developments, but it gives a basis on which to work. In Stages 2 and 3 the investment is moderate, and if the property does not respond favorably the options or interests can be terminated. Stage 4 represents a sizeable investment, and it is more difficult to drop the property after this part of the operation is completed. Stages 2, 3, and 4 may be repeated several times by diflerent groups or companies before Stage 5 is reached, but when Stage 5 has been started the total capital investment must be provided and there can be no turning back. It will be noted that there is a total of 116 units of investment in the overall cost if one company proceeds with Stages 2, 3, 4, and 5 in order. Stage 4, however, consumes time which is important when markets are being considered. Bringing a property into production when metal prices are low is much more difficult than when the prices are high, and if this stage can be set aside production is attained more quickly. When Stage 4 is eliminated the total becomes 86 units of cost for Stages 2, 3, and 5, but an adjustment of 14 units must be added to Stage 5. These 14 units represent the useable value of Stage 4. Thus Stage 4 represents an investment of 30 units if carried on before Stage 5, but 14 units if included with Stage 5. This is accounted for by the fact that development work can be accomplished more cheaply under Stage 5, since everything that is done is planned on a production basis with permanent services. Stage 4 must of necessity be governed by expenditures, and a great many temporary services, including housing and power plants, must be provided. The prospect shaft is a small one, and drifts,

Jan 1, 1953

By Cleland N. Conwell

Reclaiming mined land in northern regions is less difficult than reclaiming semiarid lands. In 1972, the Usibelli coal mine near Healy, Alaska, initiated experimental plots to determine the proper grasses and amounts of fertilizer. The following spring, approximately 1600 acres of land disturbed by mining were seeded by low-flying aircraft. The reclamation project was evaluated by the State of Alaska and has been adjudged successful. The information gained is being used in reviewing prospecting permits and granting coal leases on state lands.

Jan 1, 1977

By A. B. Dyes, P. H. Braun, B. E. Cole

This paper presents a reservoir engineering analysis of the performance data for a waterflooding project in the Johnson Lease, South Ward field. This type of engineering analysis adds to the knowledge of the mechanics of water flooding. This study reveals that in general (a) high ultimate areal sweep-out efficiencies (95 to 100 per cent) can be expected, and (b) cross-flow among strata of different permeabilities during the fill-up phase can have an important influence on the behavior and should be dealt with in studying reservoirs for water flooding. The analysis further showed that the recovery predictions based on what was considered a consistent interpretation of core data and logs were low because little contribution was assumed from the low permeability, oil-bearing sand sections which have apparently yielded considerable waterflood oil. This project has yielded in excess of 2 1/2 times as much oil by water flooding as by primary depletion. These very favorable results were achieved without the use of any special injection well completion techniques. However, all of the low permeability material war included in the section open to injection despite its poor estimated primary yield. LEASE PERFORMANCE HISTORY The South Ward field lies in the southeast corner of Ward County near the southern tip of the tremendous Yates trend. Deposition of sand bodies along the seashore reefs during the latter part of the Permian period established what have turned out to be ideal conditions to form a great number of independent productive sands. Probably, these reservoirs in Ward and Winkler counties are providing operators with some of the nation's richest sources of secondary oil reserves through the use of waterflooding techniques. In South Ward field water has been very successfully used to flood oil from the Bennett sand occurring at a depth of about 2,300 to 2,400 ft. About 150 ft above the Bennett sand reservoir, the Grand Falls sand produced gas from a large cap extending over most of the field. The Atlantic Refining Co.'s 320-acre W. D. Johnson lease (Fig. 1) is on the northwest edge of the structure with only gas cap apparently present in the Grand Falls sand. The Bennett sand under this lease is oil productive, however, having a gross sand thickness averaging about 80 ft with a net of 18 ft of fairly clean, highly permeable sand, and about 36 ft of oil-bearing sand with low permeability and high water saturation. The lower permeability sand is interbedded with numerous layers of lime, shale, and anhydrite. Radioactivity logs from 12 wells and cores from two, examples of which are shown in Fig. 2, reveal that the total Bennett sand pore volume is about 71,000 bbl/acre. The estimated initial water saturation averages 41 per cent in the 54 ft of sand considered to contain oil; thus, also considering an estimated 18 per cent oil shrinkage, the lease originally contained about 34,000 bbl of oil per acre. Original pressure was probably about 1,400 psig. PVT correlations indicate that the reservoir fluid was originally saturated with gas. After discovery of the field in 1930, Atlantic completed the first well on the Johnson lease in March,

Jan 1, 1958

By Stefan Boshkov, Malcolm T. Wane

THE validity and accuracy of velocity measurements underground have been questioned repeatedly by those in mine ventilation work. The general disagreement on the subject is well illustrated in an AIME publication.' Although the presence of errors is readily admitted, their magnitudes are not known and often are described by practical operators merely as "great," "small," or "of no importance." The belief that errors are of academic interest only prevails because of a justifiable claim that actual volumes of air circulated are well in excess of those required by law and safe mining practices. Poor understanding of the source and nature of errors inherent in velocity measurements, coupled with questionable determination of cross-sectional area, result in faulty techniques for the purpose of expediting ventilation surveys and render doubtful the calculated volume. Often consistency of readings is confused with accuracy. A succession of check readings showing a maximum deviation of 5 pct in the measured value of velocity usually signifies nothing more than diligent application of technique in a stable ventilating current. This article discusses the errors involved in air measurements underground. Where instrument errors are presented, the treatment is confined solely to the rotating-vane anemometer, recognized as a most useful ventilation measurement tool because of its simple design and easy operation. In the following pages a positive deviation is defined as one which has to be added to the registered air velocity to obtain the true air velocity.

Jan 1, 1956

By William G. [Peryam], Bishop Ottey M., Fred E. Johnson

THE Lepanto Consolidated Mining Company is the largest copper producer in the Philippines, and the only one that makes a concentrate valuable principally for its copper; also, it has the only productive copper mine situated at considerable distance from the sea, and is the only one in the islands operating its own smelter. The Lepanto mine is in the Municipal District of Mankayan, sub-province of Benguet, near the heart of the Mountain Province of Northern Luzon. It is 165 km. from its shipping point at San Fernando, Province of La Union, on the shore of the China Sea. Elevations at the property range from 3200 to 4500 ft. The climate is very mild; temperatures are seldom below 50° or above 80°F. Annual rainfall approaches 170 in. and is mainly confined to a rainy season lasting from May to October. The months from December to April, inclusive, are usually extremely dry. This climatic pecularity entails the problems of landslides on the roads during the rainy season and water shortage during the dry season. The Mountain Trail, an improved rock-surfaced toll road maintained by the Commonwealth Government, gives access to the property. The 105 km. over this road may be traveled in about 4 ½ hr. during the dry season. Very few sections of the road are straight for more than 100 meters, and about one third of it is a one-way road controlled by gates. All freight for the property is delivered by the Manila Railroad Company to Bauang, La Union, 45 km. west of Baguio and at sea level, where it is picked up by freight trucks and hauled via Baguio to Lepanto. Granulated matte is hauled in bulk from Lepanto in four-ton lots on freight trucks to the storage bins at San Fernando. Freight rates from Bauang to the property amount to P8.00 per ton, and from the property to San Fernando the rate is P16.00 per ton. The company pays the road toll, P1.00 per truck, each way. THE CAMP The company maintains a modern camp, well separated from the mine and reduction plant. Comfortable and sanitary living quarters, water, and light, as well as free medical service are provided all employees. A hospital staffed by a doctor and two nurses takes care of all medical treatment. Considering recreational facilities of great importance, the company has provided two tennis courts, two basketball courts, and badminton courts for employees. Bowling alleys and a motion picture theater are operated by the company, the profits being expended for other recreational purposes. A moderate sized recreation hall serves for barrio dances, meetings,

Jan 1, 1942

Discussion of the paper of ROSWELL H. JOHNSON, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1915, and printed in Bulletin No. 98, February, 1915, pp. 221 to 226. A. C. LANE, Tufts College, Mass.-About a year ago Mr. Washburne read a paper on the same characteristic oil-sand waters, discussing their chemical character, and the possibility of their chemical character being modified by adsorption in passing through the shale. We are used to consider circulation as being in one stratum, and I have often gone so far as to think that 2,000 or 3,000 ft. clown I could recognize the chemical character as in part connate to a given water. For instance, the St. Peter sandstone, far underneath oil sands, seems to retain' a relatively fresh and peculiar character. I am, therefore, tempted to ask the writer if in his experiments lie has made any test to see whether the chemical character of these waters is also changed, where there is any adsorption, so that the water passing through these fine-grained beds should leave behind its salt as well as its oil. In many cases salt-waters are associated with oil and-gas. A second question has occurred to me. In these days when we hear a good deal about oil flotation, may it not be well to repeat these experi-ments with pyritic concentrates, and see if they observe precisely the same with regard to the selective accumulation of oil and gas. ROSWELL H. JOHNSON.-I thank Profesor Lane for bringing this question forward. I recognize its importance, but. am not able to say I have any data upon that point. It is also very interesting in connection with Dr. Day's hypothesis of fractional filtration, and we may very easily get something happening to the water corresponding in some degree to what we get with oil. D. B. REGER, Morgantown, W. Va.-Mr. Johnson in his paper states his belief that the oil is formed originally from organic matter in the shale, and is forced out of the shale into the porous reservoir of the sand above the shale. He states further, that as you go deeper iii the measures where there is an increasing overburdens, the oil becomes less and the gas increases in large proportion, or lie says that the oil is forced back out of the sand by pressure, into the shale.

Jan 5, 1915

By James B. Duke, Ernest W. Greene

An idea of what is meant by "Ultrafine Minerals Or Slimes" as used in the title can be had by an examination of Fig. I. Particle size distributions are presented for a crude kaolin clay, a coarse fraction and a fine fraction. The crude kaolin as mined was blunged with water, degritted through a 325-mesh Tyler screen, and dispersed with sodium silicate. The dispersed crude was then centrifuged in the laboratory into the coarse and fine fractions shown in the figure. The distribution curves were obtained by the well known sedimentation technique of Casagrande' using a long arm centrifuge to obtain equivalent spherical diameters down to 0.2 microns on the finer fraction. Fig. 1 shows the coarse fraction kaolin to be 50% finer than 3 microns, while the crude kaolin is 50% finer than 1.4 microns, and the fine fraction 50% finer than 0.6 microns. For comparison 53 microns on the horizontal scale would represent Stokesian diameters which would just pass a 325- mesh Tyler screen, taking into consideration the Andreasen sieve correction factor of 1.22 X the screen opening.' Another helpful comparison is the surface areas, which in square meters per gram, are 0.044 for 53 micron particles, 0.77 for 3 microns, 1.65 for 1.4 microns, and 5.0 for 0.46 micron particles. Fig. 2 is an electron micrograph of a similar fine fraction kaolin showing the hexagonal plate- like particle shapes.

Jan 10, 1962

By Charles H. Hopkins, J. M. Lohr

A COMMERCIAL development requiring a suitable alloy or alloys for sealing into various grades of glass made it desirable to have a more exact knowledge' of the expansion characteristics of the nickel-iron alloys than appeared in the published literature. The expansion of the more common [ ] types of glass under consideration varies from 2.7 to 10.4 X 10-s per degree Centigrade, over the range 20° to 400° C. For reference, the thermal expansion curves of several types of glass used for sealing by the lamp and tube industries are given (Figs. 1 and 2). This paper covers a detailed investigation of the thermal expansion of a series of nickel-iron alloys in which the nickel content varies from 30 to 70 per cent. Particular stress is laid on the alloys that contain between 40 and 55 per cent Ni.

Jan 1, 1938