Search Documents

By Christopher Andreae

Years before iron and steel works were established at Sydney, several thriving although short-lived iron works operated in Nova Scotia. These furnaces reflected the general nineteenth-century North American experience with iron works. At the beginning of the century, small furnaces struggled to supply local needs. Charcoal was the principal fuel and water powered most furnace equipment. By the end of the century, a few huge primary iron and steel works dominated production for Nova Scotia and the rest of Canada. Two sites achieved prominence in the nineteenthcentury Nova Scotia iron industry: Londonderry and Ferrona (Fig. 1). Londonderry, the larger and longerlasting of the two sites, is today a small village on the south flank of the Cobequid Mountains, about 30 km west of Truro. Prior to the establishment of an iron works in 1849, no community existed. At the peak of operation in the 1880s, however, over 2600 people were located there. The second site, Ferrona, today is a mere crossroads on the map, about 10 km south of New Glasgow. Following the construction of a blast furnace there in 1892, a small village grew up around the furnace. But once the furnace was blown out in 1904, the population gradually drifted away.

Jan 1, 1999

By A. O. Dufresne

WITHOUT transportation, mining would be quite impossible. Any person familiar with the operation of a mine knows full well that from the minute ore is blasted, it is kept moving until it reaches the treatment plant. In the mill, by means of conveyors and elevators, the ore is brought from receiving bins to one machine after another until finally its valuable mineral is separated from the gangue. The finished product must then be shipped -either by boat, rail, or motor trucks to industrial centres, where it undergoes further treatment and transformation into finished commercial goods. Everybody appreciates that the winning of an or-e includes, amongst various operations, the moving of large quantities of material of generally low value. Transportation, therefore, must be considered One of the most important factors in the economics of mining. My assignment, this afternoon, is not to treat of that phase of transportation as it directly affects mining operations, but rather to consider some of the aspects of overland transportation and its influence in bringing about the development of mining camps in Canada. I shall take the liberty of rapidly surveying conditions facing prospectors, mine developers and operators from the time a region is still in a pre-pioneering stage until such time as a mine starts shipping its concentrates.

Jan 1, 1956

By N. M. Steven, J. M. Moore, J. L. Kuyper

Abstract - Mineral exploration and research has led to the identification of four types of tungsten mineralization in the NE-trending, largely ensialic, inland branch of the late Proterozoic/early Paleozoic Pan-African Damara Orogen. The mineralization (mainly scheelite) occurs in a terrane (the Central Zone) that is characterized by multiple deformation, greenschist/amphibolite-facies metamorphism and numerous peraluminous S-type granitic and pegmatitic intrusions. The four major types of scheelite mineralization are (in ascending stratigraphie order of host rock): (1) thin (5 cm to 2 meter) quartz+ plagioclase+ diopside ± scapolite cale-silicate granofels with finely disseminated scheelite (scheelite-bearing granofels; SBG) developed as discontinuous intercalations within the cale-silicate rocks of the Khan, Spes Bona, Oberwasser and Kuiseb Formations (Nosib and Swakop Groups); garnet+ pyroxene ± vesuvianite + scheelite ± fluorite replacement skarns hosted by Okawayo, Karibib and lower Kuiseb Formation marbles in the aureoles of late tectonic, unmineralized leucogranites; metaturbidite-hosted scheelite- (and possibly wolfrarnite-) bearing tourmalinites, both stratiform and crosscutting, in the Kuiseb Formation located in the 'cleavage fronts' of late tectonic granitoids; scheelite-bearing vesuvianite +quartz+ garnet skarnoid rocks (several hundred meters in length) in the calcareous metaturbidites of the upper Kuiseb Formation. These scheelite occurrences were discovered by the follow-up of a large number of tungsten anomalies located during a regional stream sediment sampling program. Detailed mapping, ultra-violet surveys and rock sampling proved to be the most effective surface exploration techniques for locating mineralization; soil sampling and geophysics were of almost no use. The largest, continuous scheelite-bearing skarn of economic interest, Otjua, has a drill-indicated reserve of 250 000 tonnes at 0.53 wt% W03 and 8 wt% CaF2.

Jan 1, 1994

By D J. McDougall

Due to changes in the solid-state conditions of minerals in the rocks surrounding hydrothermal, contact meta-somatic or metamorphosed ore deposits, positive or negative thermoluminescent anomalies may be found in their vicinity. Several types of equipment which can be used for both quantitative and semi-quantitative measurements of the emission are discussed and compared. Methods of selecting, preparing and testing samples to ensure reproducible results are outlined, along with the kind of data which can be obtained from different types of equipment. The normal thermoluminescence of rock-forming min~ erals in the common rock types is noted, and variations in the solid-state conditions in the wall rocks which will cause marked increases or decreases of true thermoluminescence are outlined, as well as the thermolum-nescence-like emissions which are present in the vicinity of ore deposits. Introduction T HERMOLUMINESCENCE occurs when certain crystalline materials are heated to temperatures ranging between 180' and 400°C. The light emission can be ascribed to the release of electrons metastably trapped within the crystal lattice, with peak emissions taking place at temperatures which are more or less specific for a particular set of traps; the area under

Jan 1, 1965

By R. Pandher, R. Schonewille, N. Tripathi

Advanced process modelling tools were developed for the Xstrata Nickel Sudbury Smelter flow sheet using a combination of FACTSAGE TM METSIMTM and ARENATM software. These tools were employed to assist with plant optimisation, emission control, process design, troubleshooting and case studies as applied to the smelter. The development of process modelling tools in pyro-metallurgy commonly involves an in-depth study of the therm o-chemical properties (heat capacity, liquidus temperature, etc.) of all high temperature phases, usually matte and slag. The preferred tool for this purpose is FACTSAGETM, a well-known then-no-chemical modelling software package. The results from the therm o-chemical model have been subsequently incorporated into the development of a process model for the entire smelting facility using the METSIMTM platform. Such process model also includes a number of special features adopted to effectively simulate the complex industrial phases; matte and slag systems. To ensure the robustness and reliability of the process model, several process parameters and assumptions were verified with laboratory and plant data. Consequently, the model includes the ability to examine the impact of a number of plant parameters on potential plant performance. Primary variables are the percent sulphur elimination during concentrate roasting, furnace matte grade and degree of matte metallization. Key output parameters include operating temperature, furnace coke requirement, sulphuric acid production, CO2 emissions and overall energy requirements. Selected outputs from the process model (for example blowing time, slag production rate and matte converting rate) can then be utilised in the development of a discrete event model (DEM) for the smelter using ARENATM software. Incorporation of reliable and validated mass balance parameters enhances the robustness and reliability of the DEM model. The integration of then-no-chemical, process and DEM modeling tools has a distinct advantage in planning plant trials and examining process design initiatives at Xstrata Nickel's Sudbury Smelter. The present paper discusses the development of these three models and the synergies existing among them. Typical results from all three models are also presented.

Jan 1, 2011

By R. Pandher, R. Schonewille

Advanced process modelling tools were developed for the Xstrata Nickel Sudbury Smelter flow sheet using a combination of FACTSAGETH METSIMTM and ARENATM software. These tools were employed to assist with plant optimisation, emission control, process design, troubleshooting and case studies as applied to the smelter. The development of process modelling tools in pyro-metallurgy commonly involves an in-depth study of the therm o-chemical properties (heat capacity, liquidus temperature, etc.) of all high temperature phases, usually matte and slag. The preferred tool for this purpose is FACTSAGETM, a well-known then-no-chemical modelling software package. The results from the therm o-chemical model have been subsequently incorporated into the development of a process model for the entire smelting facility using the METSIMTM platform. Such process model also includes a number of special features adopted to effectively simulate the complex industrial phases; matte and slag systems. To ensure the robustness and reliability of the process model, several process parameters and assumptions were verified with laboratory and plant data. Consequently, the model includes the ability to examine the impact of a number of plant parameters on potential plant performance. Primary variables are the percent sulphur elimination during concentrate roasting, furnace matte grade and degree of matte metallization. Key output parameters include operating temperature, furnace coke requirement, sulphuric acid production, CO2 emissions and overall energy requirements. Selected outputs from the process model (for example blowing time, slag production rate and matte converting rate) can then be utilised in the development of a discrete event model (DEM) for the smelter using ARENATM software. Incorporation of reliable and validated mass balance parameters enhances the robustness and reliability of the DEM model. The integration of then-no-chemical, process and DEM modeling tools has a distinct advantage in planning plant trials and examining process design initiatives at Xstrata Nickel's Sudbury Smelter. The present paper discusses the development of these three models and the synergies existing among them. Typical results from all three models are also presented.

Jan 1, 2011

By H. D. B. Wilson

"IntroductionRECENT ADVANCES in geo-chemistry and in •our knowledge •of crystal structure provide a key which enables us to create a systematic picture of the genesis of many ore deposits. This genetic scheme may be used with confidence in assessing certain types of orebodies and may be of some aid in actual exploration, since it affords a rational explanation of the dependence of the composition •of the ore minerals on that of the rock type in which they occur with which they -are •associated. For purposes of the present paper, .the elements chosen are •chromium, vanadium, iron, and titanium. The oxides of all these metals occur in deposits of similar or related type, and it is proposed to show that, for each, the composition of the •ore mineral is related to •the composition of the enclosing :rock, and that one of the principal factors controlling the composition of the ore is the ionic size of its constituent elements.Geochemical PrinciplesThe crystals of the rock-forming silicates and of the magmatic oxide minerals are essentially ionic types. This means that they are composed •of oppositely charged ions such as Mg²+ and 0²-, which are held together by electrostatic attraction. The ions of each element are spherical, with characteristic size known as the ionic radius. Crystals are built up by the packing of these spheres in the most stable arrangement compatible with the size and the size and valence of the ions• involved.Many of the principles governing the formation of ionic crystals are •simple ,and logical."

Jan 1, 1953

By M. S. Diederichs, J. Oke

Surface limitations and a need for more direct transportation routes require serious consideration be given to the development of underground construction works in geotechnically unfavourable conditions. Due to geographical and logistical limitations, the construction of these underground works is restricted to difficult ground conditions that require temporary pre-support before excavation in order to avoid tunnel collapse or severe surface settlement. One type of pre-support is the umbrella arch system, which has been gaining popularity due to cost and time commitment in comparison with other pre-support systems (e.g., ground freezing). The umbrella arch system has been employed with significant frequency around the world, yet without a complete understanding about the mechanical response of the system. As such, literature has found the temporary support system to be both under and over designed with regard to safety and/or economical impact. The authors of this paper have made three major contributions to increase understanding of the umbrella arch system and to help optimize the design process. Firstly, the authors have developed nomenclature in order to categorize and define umbrella arch elements and systems, which also stimulated the creation of the empirically driven Umbrella Arch Selection Chart. Secondly, the authors have established a design methodology that is primarily based on advanced numerical modelling techniques to aid in the optimized design of the umbrella arch arrangement for site specific conditions. Thirdly, the authors have developed a semi-analytical model for umbrella arch systems employed in squeezing ground conditions by incorporating elastic foundation theory as well as convergence confinement theory. These three major contributions to such a widely employed tunnelling pre-support system will be introduced and explained in detail, and will include discussion of how each is incorporated in the complete tunnel support design process and throughout the construction and monitoring phase of a project.

Jan 1, 2015

By Ree Llewellyn

"It has been estimated conservatively that the costs of wear damage and friction in the Canadian mining and mineral processing industry amount to over one billion dollars per year. These are mainly incurred through the repair or replacement of worn parts and production losses from related equipment downtime. The selection and application of the most appropriate wear protection components and systems, can thus have a very significant influence on productivity, profitability and global competitiveness.Details are presented of the wide diversity of materials used to counteract the varied and often complex wear attack mechanisms that occur in surface mining. The majority are various forms of steels and irons with generally very high hardness. However, they also include relatively soft elastomers and polymeric products.The main characteristics and applications of the different classes are reviewed. Case studies record significant performance improvements achieved through more judicious selections. Finally, some new developments which reduce maintenance charges by substantially increasing wear component life, are described."

Jan 1, 1996

By A. H. Burns

"Regenerative and recuperative burner systems require advanced combustion techniques to minimize NOx emissions. Various methods of pollutant minimization and furnace design considerations are described. Cited examples are a large high temperature furnace and a small Zinc vaporizing furnace. The concept of total carbon footprint is introduced. The application of Biomass combustion as an effective method of cost and green-house gas (GHG) reduction is discussed. Practical considerations of scale, location and process limitations are discussed. Two examples of biomass fired equipment are cited. Ideal sites have large biomass resources available locally. Processed biomass fuels will be an important substitute for fossil fuel. INTRODUCTIONIn 1992, I presented a paper entitled Combustion Strategies In The Modern Industrial Environment (1992). At that time an abundant supply of cheap fossil fuel made many of the measures I talked about difficult to justify for anything but new equipment.Since 1992 we, as a society, have demonstrated an ability to accelerate the pace of industrial and societal change. The term industrial revolution applied to this age of incessant change is completely meaningless, implying a discrete moment in historical time. What our society has built is a system capable of unfettered, continuous and accelerating technological change. With this change comes an increasing demand for energy and materials.This year is the anniversary of the Titanic disaster, a moment in time when technological certainty met the caprice of nature and gave us a brutal reminder of what can happen to us if we underestimate that power (Mowbray, 1912). In the intervening interval we have regained the technological arrogance that was lost in 1912 bringing us back to the problems of climate change and the need for sustainable industrial activities.We use advanced mathematics to describe many complex systems, sometimes with disastrous results. For example there has been a recent attempt to model the global economy as a completely deterministic system. This premise is flawed at its foundation as human nature and emotion are indeterminate constants in the equations, yielding probabilistic solutions at best. As engineers we are all familiar with stiff problems. The solution to such a problem is meaningless and we have all had the misfortune to live through and rue the effects of that miscalculation over the last few years."

Jan 1, 2012

By A. M. Glendinning

"IntroductionLocationTHE PROPERTY of Aunor Gold Mines, Limited is in Deloro township, Ontario, about three miles southeast of the town of Timmins. It consists of a group of eleven claims located between those of Buffalo-Ankerite Gold Mines, Limited, and Delnite Gold Mines, Limited.GeologyThe ore zone at the Aunor mine consists of a narrow band of fine grained pillowed andesite, irregular bands of 'brown to green carbonated andesite, and lenticular bodies of quartz feldspar porphyry. The zone strikes N.80°E., dips 60 North, and has been traced for 5,000 feet across the property. It varies in width from 0 to 250 feet and is bounded on the north and south by masses of dark bluish-grey tale chlorite schist. These schist bands have widths up to 500 feet.The ore occurs in a series of parallel and branching veins confined to the limits of the zone. These veins tend to terminate and die out on the footwall schist contact, striking generally parallel with the ore zone. In wide sections of the zone, 150 to 250 feet, the veins range in width up •to 3.5 feet and may occur in two or three horizons across the width of the zone, each mineable independent of the other. They tend to dip a little flatter than the general dip of the zone. Where the zone is narrow, the veins are so closely spaced and numerous they can be mined together and in some places the complete zone has been mined from schist to schist."

Jan 1, 1953

By W. M. Goodwin

The gold district of northwestern Quebec, though it has attracted such widespread attention during the past year, is still in the prospect stage throughout, and one must preface any remarks about it with the plain statement that its capacity to produce gold commercially is still subject to proof. However, this proof may be forthcoming any day, and from widely separated localities. Consequently it is of interest to note some of the features of the region and of the prospects now being developed. First I shall note the relation of this mining development to the province of Quebec and to the Dominion; then will follow a brief resume of the known geological facts; and finally I shall describe briefly some of the more advanced prospects developed during the past twelve-month. Those that have followed closely the fortunes of the new gold-field will find little that is new in what follows, but it may serve a useful purpose for others by bringing together scattered items of information and presenting them as a whole. GOLD MINING AND AGRICULTURE First let us consider the gold belt in its relation to the province of Quebec. Apart from the world-renowned asbestos camp south of the St. Lawrence, it is the only mineral development of major importance the province has experienced. It is the first important development in the province's vast area of Precambrian rocks, most of which remains as yet totally unexplored and unprospected. The relative importance of this first mining camp in northern Quebec cannot as yet be gauged, but it is bound to stimulate an active interest in the other mineral-bearing areas now known to exist, and in the vast unexplored spaces.

Jan 1, 1924

By Yuanming Pan, Brett Rogers, Baoquan Hu, Gary Yeo, Christine Austman

The nature and distribution of radiation-induced defects (RIDs) in quartz from the Maw Zone, a yttrium- and rare-earth-element-enriched sandstone breccia complex exhibiting intense hydrothermal alteration, have been investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. EPR spectra show that detrital quartz in sandstone, from five diamond drill holes intersecting the Maw Zone and one above the crest of the so-called Quartzite Ridge, contain only background-level RIDs, indicating that Ubearing fluids were absent in this area. However, close to the sandstone-basement unconformity, in hole WR-194 immediately west of the Quartzite Ridge, the concentration of RIDs in detrital quartz is significantly above background but at least an order of magnitude lower than those at the Key Lake and McArthur River deposits. Widespread drusy quartz at the Maw Zone, which signifies intense hydrothermal alteration, is associated with hematite-, sulfide- and carbonate-bearing mineral assemblages, which exhibit complex crosscutting relationships. EPR spectra of drusy quartz in all three types of mineral assemblages are low in RIDs as well, supporting the EPR evidence that fluids at the Maw Zone did not carry significant U. These EPR results suggest that, in spite of intense hydrothermal alteration and favorable structural geology, the Maw Zone is unlikely to host any significant U mineralization. Moreover, this study shows that the EPR technique is potentially a useful exploration tool, capable of determining whether individual alteration zones in the Athabasca Basin were associated with U-bearing fluids or not.

Jan 1, 2013

By Celine Y. Zhang, Chloe J. Feng, Charles Q. Jia, Donald W. Kirk

Oil sands petroleum coke (OSPC) is a by-product of coking - a high-temperature process that converts the mined bitumen to the synthetic crude oil (SCO). For every barrel of the SCO produced, about 20 kg of OSPC are generated. Over 70 million metric tons of OSPC have been produced and stockpiled as a result of the development of oil sands industry in the past few decades. Unlike conventional petroleum coke, OSPC has uniquely high impurity contents, particularly sulphur (~ 7 wt%) and metals (e.g. vanadium at ~0.15 wt%), which has hindered its large-scale applications as a solid fuel. Vanadium is a valuable metal that is widely used as an alloy for strengthening steels. The stockpiled OSPC contains about 100,000 tons of vanadium, while the world’s production in 2013 was only 75,600 tons. At the current price of $25US/kg, the OSPC-bound vanadium represents a total value of $2.5 billion US dollars. In this work, we investigate the technical feasibility of extracting vanadium from OSPC. The work focuses on the characterization of vanadium in OSPC and the conditions for effective extraction of vanadium from the OSPC.

Jan 1, 2015

By Y. Hayashi, A. Fuwa

To analyze zinc vaporization kinetics of zinc smelting slag in the ISP furnace, reduction reaction rate of zinc oxide from ZnO-FeOx-CaO-SiO2 slag system with CO-CO2-Ar gas mixtures has been measured by a therm o-gravim etric apparatus at various ZnO content, Pco, and temperature. The reduction rate was measured under a chemical reaction control in the initial three minutes where surface zinc content can be assumed constant. Through the reaction rate dependency analysis on ZnO contents, Pco and temperature, discussion has been made on its reaction mechanistic information in terms of rate coefficient, adsorption/desorption mechanism and activation energy.

Jan 1, 2008

By Brad Gunn

Our program has been dictated by the necessity of broadening our markets through converting potash chemicals to fertilizers more in demand than potassium chloride. To this end, we have undertaken studies on methods of preparing potassium sulphate or potassium magnesium sulphate by rather simple conversion. When mixtures of sodium and magnesium sulphates are reacted with potassium chloride, the ratio of sodium to magnesium is quite pertinent. A range of ratios has been selected and the conversions of potassium chloride to sulphate have been assessed by cyclic operations. Results from experimental procedures for producing potassium nitrate are also avail-able. The influence on recovery for systems including organic solvents is assessed for a variety of situations.

Jan 1, 1971

By A. Rodriguez-Prado

"Magnetic fields affect the growth of cultured cells and plants; however, limited information exists about their effects on vegetation performing environmental remediation. Constructed wetland mesocosms treating hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) wastewater exposed to low-intensity magnetic fields (60 Hz, 56.5 × 10-6 Tesla) produced 100% more biomass than the unexposed control. Nonetheless, they removed only 43 ± 27% of Cr(VI), compared to 60 ± 21% for the control. A Cr(VI) reduction expression was developed as a function of the magnetic field. The design and operation of constructed wetlands to treat mining wastewater can be corrected for magnetic field effects.RÉSUMÉ Les champs magnétiques affectent la croissance des cellules et des plantes cultivées; toutefois, il existe peu d’information quant à leurs effets sur la végétation utilisée à des fins d’assainissement environnementale. Les mésocosmes des marais artificiels traitant des eaux usées, contenant du chrome hexavalent (Cr(VI)), exposés à des champs magnétiques de faible intensité (60 Hz, 56,5 × 10-6 Tesla) ont produit 100 % plus de biomasse que le contrôle non exposé. Néanmoins, ils n’ont enlevé que 43 ± 27 % du Cr(VI), comparativement à 60 ± 21 % pour le contrôle. Une expression de réduction du Cr(VI) a été développée en tant que fonction du champ magnétique. La conception et l’exploitation de marais artificiels pour traiter les eaux usées des mines peuvent être adaptées pour tenir compte des effets des champs magnétiques."

Jan 1, 2015

By W. J. S. Craigen, G. E. Wittur

"In the context of today's continuously changing world, there are many factors which must be considered when attempting to assess the ability of Canada's primary copper producers to remain competitive in the face of increasing competition in world markets. In this paper, we have attempted to document those factors that will have the greatest impact on the future viability of Canada's copper industry, and to suggest possible strategies to fully utilize whatever inherent advantages Canada may have to enhance its competitive position. Technological factors related to the efficiency of precious and by-product metals recovery, energy type and utilization efficiency, production and sale of sulphur by-products, and control of 502 emissions are given high priority in this evaluation of Canada's future needs to remain competitive. Particular emphasis is placed on assessing the relative viability of hydrometallurgical versus pyrometallurgical processes for copper; to address uniquely Canadian conditions and problems. Due consideration is also given to the economic incentives required to allow Canada's copper producers to compete under anticipated world market conditions and to facilitate the continued development of Canada's copper resources. IntroductionWhen we try to assess the viability or competitiveness of any industry the bottom line is still usually, ""Can we produce a pound of product cheaper than the competition?"" Canada's copper industry is certainly no exception. However, as with most resource-based industries dependent upon exports, there are many factors which have a significant effect on the cost components which make up the total cost of producing and selling a pound of copper. It is desirable therefore to have as clear a picture as possible of the cost components, the major factors affecting them, and how they compare with the competition, particularly the third-world copper producers.In this paper we have attempted to provide a brief outlook for world copper markets and a brief overview of Canada's competitive position. We have also attempted to document those factors which will have the greatest impact on future production costs, and have suggested possible initiatives to utilize inherent Canadian advantages to enhance our competitive position. Special emphasis has been placed on technological initiatives designed to make full use of these ""advantages"", to develop superior beneficiation and extraction! refining technologies. Major factors considered in the present study are:"

Jan 1, 1986

"Developing markets for western metallurgical coal have continued to stimulate considerable exploration activity in the Rocky Mountain foothills and to influence major segments of a wide-ranging carbonization R&D pro-gram. Adjunct studies have included expanded petrographie investigations.Coal preparation has• been principally directed toward utilization of prepared small coal and was, like much of the year's combustion work, strongly influenced by concern over atmospheric pollution. Particular attention has been given to desulphurization and to the suppression of pollutants in combustion systems.In the area of non-fuel utilization of coal, interest has centered on plant nutrients and on a series of coal-based carbons which, inter alia, possess utility as filtration media.Other projects included the development of improved sampling and analytical methods, investigations into the effect of storage on coal proper-ties and R&D in solids pipelining. In addition, a significant volume of basic 'uncommitted' research has been maintained."

Jan 1, 1968

By Chi Zhang, Junyi Wu

"The use of permanent stainless steel cathodes for electrorefining and electrowinning of cathode copper had been introduced to the market long time ago and now is a well-accepted technology worldwide. During the last decades, the Chinese copper refinery industry had been growing rapidly and many large scaled production plants had been built. In the modern refineries, permanent stainless steel cathodes are introduced and used instead of traditional starter sheets. The most common steel grade used is austenitic stainless steel S31603 (316L/1.4404), while both S30403 (304L/1.4404) and N08904 (904L/1.4539) have been used depending on the actual working conditions, especially with regarding corrosion environment. While 316L permanent cathode functions well in many plants, different kind of problems, such corrosion and deformation, have been reported. There is therefore an increased need for more suitable material. New stainless steels, such as duplex stainless steels, with better properties have been tried and introduced into the application of permanent stainless steel cathode with satisfied results. The article introduces first the Chinese copper refinery industry and properties of duplex stainless steel in general, and then describes the development of using permanent duplex stainless steel cathode, including the actual working conditions, production of cathode sheets as well as the experiences of application in details. After more than one year’s usage, the advantages of permanent duplex stainless steel cathodes are clear seen.INTRODUCTIONChina has become a major player in the international copper market, accounting for around 40 percent of global refined copper demand. Despite the slowdown of the Chinese economy, the consumption of copper products will still increase, but with a medium and/or low growth which will be the new situation for the coming years. The average growth rate is expected to be around 5 percent per annual. In the coming Five-Year plan for National Economic and Social Development a number of initiatives will be finalized which will require massive amounts of copper. In 2015, the expected consumption of copper products will be over 9 million metric tons. The main driver of the consumption is the electric power industry which accounts nearly the half of the total consumption; followed by cooling application with 15% and transportation with nearly 10%, see figure 1."

Jan 1, 2016