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By O. W. Shimer, D. C. Helms, C. E. Brown

THE early history and progress of anthracite stripping, from the first known operation at Summit Hill in 1821 through 1917, was covered in 1917 in a paper by J. B. Warriner,1 then chief engineer, now president of the Lehigh Navigation Coal Co., and stripping methods between 1917 and 1931 were the subject of a paper in 1931 by H. H. Otto,2 of the Hudson Coal Company. The present paper is confined to methods used today on pitching beds in the western middle and southern anthracite fields. The anthracite industry, not unlike other large industries, had been affected for more than a decade by the adverse economic conditions of the country. High development and operating costs and the competition of other fuels caused some collieries to be closed temporarily, while others were permanently abandoned. In order to obtain a larger tonnage at a lower development cost, a larger stripping program was put into effect by many companies. In 1932, stripping operations accounted for 334 million tons, or 7 per cent of the total anthracite production of the year, and in the next 10 years this increased until more than double that amount, or over 14 per cent of the total production, was from stripping operations. These figures represent the total production of the entire anthracite region; unfortunately, the figures have not been separated from the different fields. There are some operations in the southern and middle western fields where the tonnage obtained from stripping amounts to more than 30 per cent of the total colliery production. Stripping operations on pitching beds present difficult problems. Owing to the various geological formations, a different situation is encountered in nearly every stripping pit; and because of the proximity of an overlying bed, it is very often necessary to load the entire overburden into trucks and haul it out of the pit to the dump area, although back filling and casting is done whenever possible. Beds in the areas described in this paper pitch from 20° to 90° and some are on the invert in, many sharp folds and faults. PLANNING The more successful strippings have had adequate engineering analysis. Some work is being done without much preliminary planning, but many strippings would have failed completely if close supervision by the engineering department had not been maintained. Locations of stripping areas are determined as follows: 1. By constructing cross sections over the areas and drilling sufficient diamond-drill or well drill holes to study the strata and to determine the location, thickness and pitch of the beds.

Jan 1, 1944

By Norman J. Sather

LOCATION AND HISTORY The Bunker Hill Mine is situated on the south side of the Coeur d’Alene River in Shoshone County of Northern Idaho near the City of Kellogg. Kellogg, the largest in the Coeur d’Alene District cities, is at an elevation of 2,300 feet and has a population of approximately 7,000 people. It can be reached by air, railway or highway. The history of the Bunker Hill Mine dates back to August 26, 1885, when Noah S . Kellogg found the outcrop of the Bunker Hill ore body on the hillside above the present town of Wardner, Idaho, in Milo Gulch. A small concentrator was erected in 1886. Before the railroad came, the mine output was transported by mule teams to the head of navigation on Coeur d’Alene Lake. After ten years of production, an interest was purchased in the Tacoma Smelter at Tacoma, Washington, to which the entire output was shipped. In 1916 and 1917 a modern lead smelting plant and refinery was erected and in 1927 and 1928, a modern Electrolytic Zinc Reduction Plant was built and put into operation by the Sullivan Mining Company which was 50% owned and now totally owned by The Bunker Hill Company. GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY The Bunker Hill ore bodies are found in gray and greenish gray quartzite and argillaceous quartzite of Precambrian age and are known as the Revett and St. Regis formations. Most of the ore bodies are found in the St. Regis formation.

Jan 1, 1970

By Charles A. Kliche

INTRODUCTION The Northern Great Plains Coal Province which occupies approximately 36.6 ha contains about one-half of the nation's total coal resources. About one million ha are underlain by coal that is considered to be mineable from the surface. The topography of the province is predominately plains, rolling hills, and some badland areas characterized by breaks or sharply eroded hills. Elevations range from about 1500 m above sea level on the west to about 600 m above sea level on the eastern boundary. The average slope of the ground is approximately 2 m per km. Streams in the province drain generally easterly and southeasterly (1). In the United States, the Northern Great Plains Province lies within the states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, and Colorado. The coal within the province is located almost entirely in the states of North Dakota, Montana, and Wyoming. Although it is relatively low rank, the coal within the province encompasses a large portion of the total remaining U. S. reserves. The U. S. Geological Survey estimates the total remaining coal resources of the United States to be 2.6 trillion mt within 1000 m of the surface, and 2.9 trillion tons within 1830 m of the surface. Of this total, only about 177 billion mt are classified as reserves meaning that they are (1) known in location, quantity and quality from geologic evidence supported by engineering measurements, and (2) economically recoverable based on currently available technologies and current market value (2).

Jan 1, 1983

By Chester A. Fulton

SUPPLYING as it does a necessity for healthy animal and vegetable phosphate production is a most important industry. We human beings also are animal as this war so surely proves. Unlike many other elements no substitnite is available for phosphorus or its compounds. Marvelous as are modern plastics none can lake the place of phosphorus in making hone structures. As meassured in these times the phosphate industry is not a large industry. Output of phosphate rock, the original source of our agricultural and ,chemical phophates amounts to only some twelve million long tons per annum in the entire world. Phosphates are compounds of phosphorus, which is always found in nature combined with other elements. It never occurs in nature as such. The first choice of the element phosphorus is tie itself strongly to oxygen and then to water moisture - thus becomeing phosphlic acid. This phosphoric acid in turn hunts around for a base such as lime for instance and together they make phosphate of lime.

Jan 1, 1944

By William T. Folwell

The Lucky Friday mine east of Mullan, Idaho, is an outstanding example of a property in the Coeur d’Alene district where a small and insignificant- appearing silver-lead-zinc vein at the surface has changed at depth into a large vein of great importance. The Lucky Friday vein has little if any surface expression and above the 1200 level the ore shoots are small and discontinuous. Between the 1200 level and 2450 level, the lowest developed level, the main ore shoot has shown remarkable improvement on each succeeding lower level, and today the mine is one of the major lead-silver producers in the Coeur d'Alene district. History: The Lucky Friday property is on the north side of the South Fork of the Coeur d'Alene River in sections 25, 26 and 35, T. 48 N., R. 5 E., Hunter mining district, Shoshone County, Idaho. This is about one mile east of the town of Mullan, which serves the eastern portion of the Coeur d'Alene district. The southern part of the property is crossed by a branch line of the Northern Pacific Ry. and by U. S. Highway 10. This highway is the principal road crossing the panhandle of Idaho and connects the district with Spokane, Wash., on the west and Missoula, Mont., on the east. The main portal and surface plant of the Lucky Friday mine is at an elevation of 3365 ft, only a short distance above the valley floor and a few hundred feet from U. S. Highway 10, so the mine is readily accessible for year-round operation.

Jan 12, 1958

The plans for the activities of the Petroleum Division for the coming year do not differ materially from those of the past several years. The fall meeting is scheduled for Oct. 12 and 13 and is to be held at Tulsa, Oklahoma. The Division, of course, will take part in the annual meeting of the Institute at New York. A fall meeting will also be held in California at approximately the same time as the meeting at Tulsa. A number of papers are to be presented at the two meetings simultaneously. The various committees are at work arranging the programs. The Division will continue to be active in its various fields of endeavor, such as stabilization, production reviews, and economics, but special stress is to be laid on the engineering and research fields. In the past the Division has served as a forum for open and frank discussion of problems confronting the engineers in the oil industry. It is hoped that it will continue to function in this capacity. Papers presenting original ideas and extending the boundaries of knowledge and understanding in the field of petroleum production will be welcomed. Members who have interesting information to contribute should not wait until called upon by one of the Committees, but should offer a paper at the earliest opportunity. The past year has seen a decided strengthening of the control over production, with prospects of even more rigid control in the future. It is essential that production programs under such control be carefully planned and it is highly desirable that petroleum engineers take an active part in the planning, to insure efficient production of oil and minimize the waste of this natural resource. At a time like this, when it is difficult to keep the production of oil within reasonable limits, it may seem unnecessary to improve the efficiency of production methods, but, as has been aptly said, the trouble is not that we have too great a reserve of oil but that we are producing tomorrow's oil today. Therefore it behooves those who are entrusted with the engineering and scientific phases of production to learn how to get the greatest yield economically possible from the present and future fields in order that we may enjoy the advantages of petroleum products for a long time to come.

Jan 1, 1934

By Donald H. McLaughlin, John H. Moses

IN the latitude of Lima, the broad uplifted block that forms the Andes is made up of a complex sequence of folded and faulted sediments and volcanics, broken by large and small bodies of granitic rocks and porphyries with which the principal mineral deposits are closely associated in both time and space. The intrusives are a final episode in the geologic history as revealed by the consolidated rocks, for after their emplacement and after the formation of the primary ore deposits in and about them the record is simply one of long continued erosion and uplift.

Jan 1, 1945

By David, Levinger

THESE observations of the metal-working industries of Europe are based on a three months' tour of eight countries of Europe, in which 75 industrial establishments were visited in England, France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Austria and Switzerland during the summer of 1927. Since the Western Electric Co. is a large consumer of copper and brass, these industries were of particular interest and differences in practices were of keen interest to us.

Jan 1, 1928

Erwin S. SperRy, Bridgeport, Conn.: The analysis of refined copper is a subject of great importance, and has not received the attention it deserves. Copper metallurgists, therefore, will welcome the paper of Mr. Heath with satisfaction. The state of the art of the chemical analysis of copper has been such that consumers, if they could not afford to run any risk, have been obliged to buy copper from the smelter having the best reputation, and a specification for copper to meet certain requirements could not be drawn up by the mere giving of the chemical constituents. Mr. Heath has brought the analysis of the copper to such a state that when a specification calls for copper " equal to Lake copper " one will know immediately what percentage of the pure metal to expect. It seems to be a pretty well established fact that the copper of Lake Superior is practically free from antimony and bitmuth ; and, with the exception of arsenic, the other elements are easily separated from copper by electro-deposition in an acid solution. The authorities differ in regard to the question whether antimony is deposited with the copper in an acid solution. Classen* recommends the employment of a solution containing 10 per cent. of free nitric acid, sp.gr.1.21, and the strength of the current from 0.3 to 0.4 ampere, in order to prevent the other metals from being deposited with the copper; and for this reason, I presume, the method has been generally used. I, myself, have been accustomed to use such a solution for the analysis of copper-alloys, but have found that for such alloys only a small quantity of nitric acid is necessary, if sulphuric acid is present in sufficient amount to give the solution the required conductivity.

Jan 1, 1898

By Robert C. Stephenson

Large deposits of titaniferous magnetite occur associated with anorthosite and gabbro in the Lake Sanford area, Essex County, New York. The ore, gabbro, and anortbosite show consanguineous relations. Anorthosite grades through gabbroic anortbosite into gabbro but is locally intruded by gabbro. Structural and petrographic evidence suggests that gabbro was differentiated from anorthosite by filter pressing. Field and laboratory study of ore occurrences indicates that an ore residuum concentrated in the gabbro through magmatic segregation' by normal crystallization and flowage. Ore occurs as bands which grade into gabbro, and also as large masses which replace anorthosite. Ore in the gabbro is finer grained and richer in ilmenite than ore in anorthosite. Introduction The Lake Sanford area lies in the heart of the Adirondack Mountains, in the southeast portion of the Santanoni Quadrangle (Fig. I), and there are four ore bodies in the area immediately surrounding Lake Sanford. The area lies 30 miles by highway from the railroad at North Creek. The deposits were discovered in 1826, and from then until 1858 iron was produced in small quantities. They were idle from 1858 to 1906. Between 1906 and 1913, extensive development work was carried on. These early attempts to produce iron ore were thwarted by transportation difficulties and by the titanium content of the ore, which, ironically, has been the element responsible for the present development. In 1941 the National Lead Co., Titanium Division, developed the Sanford Hill ore body and is now producing ilmenite and magnetite concentrates.18 The Defense Plant Corporation is extending the railroad to the property from North Creek and is building a sintering plant to treat the magnetite concentrate. Investigations OF the Deposits* Early studies of the Lake Sanford titaniferous magnetite deposits were made by Emmons in 1842,l2 by Kemp, in 1897-98'0 and by Newland in 1908.22 Singewald26 and Osborne23 considered these deposits along with numerous other titaniferous magnetite deposits in 1913 and 1928, respectively. None of these reports entailed a detailed study of the ore occurrence in this area. The present study was begun in 1940. Seven months were spent in the field, and considerable time was spent in labora-

Jan 1, 1949

By Robert C. Stephenson

Large deposits of titaniferous magnetite occur associated with anorthosite and gabbro in the Lake Sanford area, Essex County, New York. The ore, gabbro, and anortbosite show consanguineous relations. Anorthosite grades through gabbroic anortbosite into gabbro but is locally intruded by gabbro. Structural and petrographic evidence suggests that gabbro was differentiated from anorthosite by filter pressing. Field and laboratory study of ore occurrences indicates that an ore residuum concentrated in the gabbro through magmatic segregation' by normal crystallization and flowage. Ore occurs as bands which grade into gabbro, and also as large masses which replace anorthosite. Ore in the gabbro is finer grained and richer in ilmenite than ore in anorthosite. Introduction The Lake Sanford area lies in the heart of the Adirondack Mountains, in the southeast portion of the Santanoni Quadrangle (Fig. I), and there are four ore bodies in the area immediately surrounding Lake Sanford. The area lies 30 miles by highway from the railroad at North Creek. The deposits were discovered in 1826, and from then until 1858 iron was produced in small quantities. They were idle from 1858 to 1906. Between 1906 and 1913, extensive development work was carried on. These early attempts to produce iron ore were thwarted by transportation difficulties and by the titanium content of the ore, which, ironically, has been the element responsible for the present development. In 1941 the National Lead Co., Titanium Division, developed the Sanford Hill ore body and is now producing ilmenite and magnetite concentrates.18 The Defense Plant Corporation is extending the railroad to the property from North Creek and is building a sintering plant to treat the magnetite concentrate. Investigations OF the Deposits* Early studies of the Lake Sanford titaniferous magnetite deposits were made by Emmons in 1842,l2 by Kemp, in 1897-98'0 and by Newland in 1908.22 Singewald26 and Osborne23 considered these deposits along with numerous other titaniferous magnetite deposits in 1913 and 1928, respectively. None of these reports entailed a detailed study of the ore occurrence in this area. The present study was begun in 1940. Seven months were spent in the field, and considerable time was spent in labora-

Jan 1, 1949

By H. E. Rorschach

Oil-field activities in Oklahoma made 1936 the best year since 1930. Approximately 2800 wells were completed, an increase of about 20 per cent over 1935. Purchasers' reports filed with the Corporation Commission showed a total of 200,240,252 bbl. of oil purchased from leases in 1936. The assembly of a complete table of the oil fields of the state was not achieved, as many of the early records of operators and pipe-line companies are not complete, and data for the older fields will perhaps never be fully tabulated. Table 1 includes all of the new fields and most of the important fields of the State of Oklahoma. The outstanding developments of the year were: the discovery of rich Wilcox-sand production in the Moore pool; the spectacular drilling campaign in the Capitol or Mansion extension in the Oklahoma City pool; the surprising extension of the Olympic pool and the Hunton lime zone in the Fitts pool; and the failure to find more Ordovician production in southern Oklahoma. Wildcat discoveries, which were on a par with 1935, resulted in the discovery of such promising pools as Billings-Wilcox, North Bethel, North Earlsboro and North Lucien. The Fitts-Upper Simpson, Edmond, Jesse, Keokuk Falls and South Burbank pools underwent considerable development. Fitts Pool.—The Fitts area in Pontotoc County was greatly extended during the year and was the leader in drilling activity in the state. The producing limits were pushed to the east and north and the development of the Hunton lime horizon was outstanding. In the Upper Simpson zone 162 wells were completed; 137 in the Hunton lime zone and 26 in the Wilcox zone. The Oil Creek zone, a sand body below the Wilcox member, was discovered by the Magnolia-Statler No. 3 well located in the 1/4. 1/4 of sec. 28-2N.-7E. Moore Pool.—The Moore pool, in Cleveland County, which was opened in 1935 by the Sinclair Prairie-Franklin Community No. 1 well, surprised the oil industry when the Sinclair Prairie-Marvel No. 1 well, on Apr. 1, 1936, discovered a rich body of Wilcox sand below the distillate

Jan 1, 1937

By E. A. Gulbransen, K. F. Andrew

Thermodynamic information on the solubility of hydrogen in exothermic metals is limited. Thus, the overall solubility decreased as the temperature rose, which suggests the heat of solution of hydrogen in the metal is negative; yet the terminal solubility in the metal phase increased, which suggests an endothermic reaction. A thermodynamic analysis, therefore, was made of the several equilibria involved when hydrogen dissolved in the metal. Equations were derived expressing the solubility, terminal solubility, and decomposition pressures of hydrogen in terms of the heat, entropy, and free energy of solution of hydrogen in the given phase. The relations between the thermodynamic functions for the a-zirconium and 8-hydride phase were developed. The thermodynamic quantities were determined experimentally by the measurement of the decomposition pressures over a broad composition and temperature range. Two new methods of analyzing the experimental data were developed for determination of the terminal solubility. STUDIES', ' of the impact strength of zirconium at room temperature indicated that small quantities of hydrogen, of the order of 10 parts per million, embrittles the metal. Micrographic' and X-ray diffraction' studies showed this embrittlement to result from the precipitation of a second phase upon slow cooling. These studies suggested that the terminal solubility of hydrogen in the metal phase increased with increase of temperature. This behavior appeared to contradict the effect of temperature on exothermic hydrogen occluders such as zirconium. For these metals, the solubility of hydrogen should decrease with increase of temperature. Before these facts could be understood, a thorough analysis of the several equilibria was essential. It was the purpose of this paper to consider the several equilibria involved when hydrogen was reacted with zirconium from both the theoretical and experimental points of view. Since the overall solubility of hydrogen in the metal has been considered by a number of workers, it was proposed to study the composition range 0 to 6 atomic pct H in detail. Literature Schwartz and Mallett' determined the terminal solubilities of hydrogen in the metallic phase from diffusion studies. They extrapolated concentration-penetration curves to the boundary between the solid solution phase and the hydride phase at the surface. Their results showed values of 2.6 atomic pct at 400°C and 5.2 atomic pct at 500°C. Extrapolations of the data to room temperature suggested very low values for the terminal solubilities. This study confirmed the hydrogen embrittlement results and indicated that the terminal solubilities increased as the temperature was raised. The solution of hydrogen in zirconium over the complete concentration range was studied by Hall, Martin, and Rees3 and by others. The results showed that hydrogen was absorbed up to a maximum composition of 66 atomic pct or ZrH This composition represented the t-hydride phase. The maximum amount of hydrogen absorbed increased with pressure and decreased with temperature. Due to this temperature behavior, zirconium was classed as an exothermic occluder." In 1930 Hägg studied the crystal structures of the Zr-H alloys over a broad composition range. Four hydride phases were found. However, the range of homogeneity of the several phases was not studied. Gulbransen and Andrew" recently studied the phase diagram of this system by X-ray diffraction methods and by a thermodynamic method based on decomposition pressure measurements. The results showed that only two hydride phases existed for low temperatures, the 6 and the .-phases of Hagg.' Both phases had broad regions of homogeneity. The lower limit of the two-phase region of a and d-phases suggested a terminal solubility of 4 atomic pct at 500°C. This value was in agreement with the results of Schwartz and Mallett.' To avoid hydrogen embrittlement at low temperatures, it was necessary to heat the metal in high vacuum at elevated temperatures. To choose the conditions of temperature and high vacuum, it was

Jan 1, 1956

By J. B. Campbell, V. V. Valleroy, B. T. Willman, L. W. Powers

A steam drive of heavy oil was field tested in a shallow, low oil-saturation formation near Deerfield, Mo. The pilot was conducted in the Warner formation, a sandstone containing an 18' API oil having 1,000-cp viscosity at the 60F origind reservoir temperature. The formation war at a depth of 160 ft. Steam was injected into nine input wells arranged in an array of inverted five-spot patterns. In the completely confined center pattern, 14 temperature observation wells were installed to obtain thermal data and observe test progress. Late in the test, slugs of ammonia were injected to trace the flow paths of injected fluids. From the test area about 7,000 bbl of oil were produced. Data were obtained on areal and vertical temperature distribution, steam front advance, reservoir fluid movement and terminal saturations. This field test of a steam drive (I) demonstrated the feasibility of the method, (2) confirmed that the low residual oil saturations observed in the laboratory are obtained in the steam-swept region in the field and (3) provided recovery and conformance data for one set of field conditions. INTRODUCTION The Deerfield steam drive pilot test was conducted in a shallow sandstone containing 1,000-cp oil. The venture was undertaken cooperatively by the research and production departments of Carter Oil Co., which organizations have since been consolidated into Esso Production Research Co. and Humble Oil & Refining Co.. respectively. The production department was interested in steam injection at Deerfield because it appeared to be the most promising method of commercially producing this heavy oil deposit. The research department was interested in applying the new recovery method and in evaluating its performance in the field. At the time the test was begun, the initial oil saturation was not well known. Subsequent air coring and early pilot results confirmed that there was too little oil in place for profitable commercial exploitation by steam. Pilot termination at that time, however, would have been premature for evaluating field performance of the process, and the tert was continued to obtain additional data on steam injection as a recovery method. The test was located in Vernon County, Mo., about 10 miles north of the town of Deerfield and only a few miles from the Kansas border. The pilot site was selected as typical of the area. The location represented neither the highest nor the lowest oil saturation region in the acreage under lease in 1954. The steam drive was conducted in the Warner sandstone of Lower Pennsylvanian age. At the test site the top of the Warner occurs at about 160 ft subsurface and the formation is a fine- to medium-grained micaceous sandstone that dips gently to the northwest at the rate of 12 to 15 ft/ mile. A cross-section and permeability profile of the test location are shown in Fig. 1. At the pilot location the average total thickness of the Warner formation is about 43 ft, but the effective thickness for steam drive is 26 ft. Two distinct types of hydrocarbon saturation are apparent. The lower portion of the total sand, averaging about 17 ft thick, contains a very heavy asphaltic material that will not flow under the influence of a steam drive. This bottom interval, referred to as a dead oil residue, was not considered as part of the net sand undergoing steam exploitation. The initial formation and fluid properties of the upper 26 ft in the test area are summarized in Table 1, and variation of oil viscosity with temperature is shown in Fig. 2. Imbibition tests on preserved core samples taken at the end of the pilot test showed that the Warner sandstone was then neutral or slightly water-wet. Initially, the reservoir may have been strongly water-wet as indicated by low relative permeability to water during both water injection testing and early steam injection. PRIOR HISTORY Initial production tests of wells at the pilot site produced water with only a faint show of oil. No gas was produced except at Well 7-W in the pilot area and at another well about 1/3 mile northeast of the pilot. Prior to the start of the steam drive, a two-well water injection test and a two-well air injection test were conducted. No oil was produced by either. Water was pumped into Well I-W in the northeast corner of the pilot area with simultaneous production from Well 1 (Fig. 3). The air-injection tat was run at input Well 9-W and its offset, Well 2, in the southwest corner. Air and water injectivities were about the same when corrected for viscosity and pressure differences.

By Archer E., Wheeler

Producing copper companies were active during 1941 owing to the national defense program the United States and the requirements of the friendly belligerent nation. This activity extended to the American owned properties in South America, the major part of whose product was taken by the Metals Reserve Co., a U.S. Government agency. Anaconda Copper Mining Co. is building a new converter plant at Anaconda, with four units of the Peirce-Smith type. The addition is being built adjacent to the reverberatory plant so as to avoid the necessity of hauling matte and slag. It is expected to be completed this year.

Jan 1, 1942

By J. J. Bean

Concentrating mixed sulfide-oxide copper ores by the leach-precipitation-flotation method is an old operation at the Miami Copper Co. The idea was conceived and the method developed at Miami by F. W. Maclennan and Harmon Keyes during the years 1929 to 1934, and it was these men who gave the term LPF to this process. Miami at that time had considerable reserves of mixed sulfide-oxide ore.* In the development of a suitable treatment method, it was natural that leaching of the oxides with acid and the precipita¬tion of copper from the resulting copper sulfate solution by iron was investigated. The separation… • The term oxide as used in this article includes the copper oxides, carbonates, and silicates.

Jan 12, 1960

William Clinton Brown, Brooklyn, N. Y.: The demand for an apparatus for cooling water for condensers, refrigeratingmachinery and air-compressors, as well as water-jacketed furnaces, has led manufacturers to put such an apparatus on the market, so that it is now possible to purchase a cooling-tower, properly designed and constructed, by simply stating the amount of water to be cooled and the temperatures of the hot and the cold water. The principle is similar to that described by Mr. Henrich, but wood is not used in the best apparatus. There are two great objections to wood: First, it cannot last long under the very trying conditions to which it is subjected; and second, it absorbs the organic matter with which water in constant use becomes impregnated, and the resulting odor is very disagreeable. A few days ago I saw a cooling-tower and condenser, built by the Henry R. Worthington Co., in operation at the Edison electric-lighting station in Brooklyn, N. Y., cooling the water for a 700 horse-power condenser. It consisted of a large stack of iron, about 15 feet in diameter by about 30 feet high. This stack was filled with tiling through which the water falls. A whirligig distributes the water evenly over the top, and a large fan, about 6 feet in diameter, driven by a 10 horse-power electric motor, blows air into the bottom, thus giving a positive circulation. The water, in running down the sides of the tiling, is met by the blast of air, and enough is evaporated to cool the rest. The vacuum-gauge on the condenser showed 26 inches; so the condenser was undoubtedly getting sufficient cool water.

Jan 1, 1896

By Joseph Bernhardt

THE Cornwall Ore Mines, Division of the Bethlehem Steel Co., at Cornwall, Lebanon County, consists of two separate magnetite ore bodies, approximately one mile apart. The one ore body was an outcrop in which open-pit mining operations were begun in 1742 and continued without interruption. This mine is also served by a shaft for mining that portion of the ore body not recoverable by open-pit methods. The other property had no outcropping and is entirely an underground operation. This mine, cap-tioned No. 4 mine, is serviced by two shafts 220 ft apart. The No. 4 shaft is for hoisting rock and ore, and the No. 5 shaft is for handling men and ma- terials. The shafts are on a catenary curve, closely following the dip of the ore body. Slope of the shafts at the collar is 36", flattening to 26" at the bottom. The footwall at Cornwall is a traprock which varies structurally from solid to highly fractured. Grizzly stations at the top of each chute raise were reinforced by setting timber sills on concrete. Occasionally it was necessary to concrete the entire chute raise. Concreting was done by using 35-yd electric mixers set up in the breaking subs. Sand, stone, and cement were hoisted up through the chute raises to the breaking subs. Late in 1937 it was decided to eliminate chute raises and breaking subs in future development. Haulage levels are 50 ft apart vertically. When ore is below a 40 " dip, slushing drifts are driven normal to the haulages and on 40-ft centers. In a few areas, ore dips greater than 40" and slushing drifts are then placed parallel to the haulage drifts. Finger raises are opposite each other and on 20-ft centers making 20x20-ft draw areas (fig. 1). For loading

Jan 1, 1951

By Joseph Bernhardt

THE Cornwall Ore Mines, Division of the Bethlehem Steel Co., at Cornwall, Lebanon County, consists of two separate magnetite ore bodies, approximately one mile apart. The one ore body was an outcrop in which open-pit mining operations were begun in 1742 and continued without interruption. This mine is also served by a shaft for mining that portion of the ore body not recoverable by open-pit methods. The other property had no outcropping and is entirely an underground operation. This mine, cap-tioned No. 4 mine, is serviced by two shafts 220 ft apart. The No. 4 shaft is for hoisting rock and ore, and the No. 5 shaft is for handling men and ma- terials. The shafts are on a catenary curve, closely following the dip of the ore body. Slope of the shafts at the collar is 36", flattening to 26" at the bottom. The footwall at Cornwall is a traprock which varies structurally from solid to highly fractured. Grizzly stations at the top of each chute raise were reinforced by setting timber sills on concrete. Occasionally it was necessary to concrete the entire chute raise. Concreting was done by using 35-yd electric mixers set up in the breaking subs. Sand, stone, and cement were hoisted up through the chute raises to the breaking subs. Late in 1937 it was decided to eliminate chute raises and breaking subs in future development. Haulage levels are 50 ft apart vertically. When ore is below a 40 " dip, slushing drifts are driven normal to the haulages and on 40-ft centers. In a few areas, ore dips greater than 40" and slushing drifts are then placed parallel to the haulage drifts. Finger raises are opposite each other and on 20-ft centers making 20x20-ft draw areas (fig. 1). For loading

Jan 1, 1951

By Harold F. Unger, Byron S. Snowden, William H. Engelmann

The effects of using surfactant solutions while diamond drilling in amygdaloidal basalt of the Upper Michigan copper mining district were investigated. Nonionic, anionic, and cationic surfactant solutions, all biodegradable, were tested with size AX surface-set bits mounted on a drill instrumented for continuous recording of thrust, rotational speed, and torque levels. Water flow and penetrations rates were also recorded. A drilling study was carried out, testing two rotational speed levels, two diamond bit grade levels, and four flushing agents (including water as a control). Comparison of all low-speed/high-thrust groups of tests shows that the non-ionic surfactant produced a 35% overall average increase in penetration rate over water, the anionic a 29% increase, and the cationic a 28% increase. These increases in, penetration rates resulted in a 22 to 26% reduction in cost over flushing with water alone. With the high-speed/low-thrust combination, the surfactants produced less benefits in penetration rate increases over water (14% increase for nonionic, 14% decrease for anionic, and 2% decrease for cationic type). Particle size analyses were run on drill cuttings produced by the three surfactant solutions and by water. All surfactant solutions showed a 20 to 50% increase in solids content over that of water alone. Since flushing rates were constant, these increases in solids content agree well with the penetration rate changes. The diamonds were recovered from each bit by matrix dissolution, and bit wear was measured in terms of total loss of weight. Flushing with surfactant solutions showed a savings in bit wear in most cases. The drill team noted also that surfactant flushing improved recovery of drill core by allowing easier removal of the core from the barrel.

Jan 1, 1976