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By F. G. Schwartz

This circular presents the results of a survey of research on jet fuel thermal stability jointly sponsored by the National Petroleum Refiners Association (NPRA), Tulsa, Okla., and the Bureau of Mines. The development of supersonic planes has led to many problems that did not exist in the operation of subsonic aircraft. One of the most important of these is rapid deterioration of the fuel at the high temperatures to which it is subjected. At higher speeds, aerodynamic heating of the airframe imposes severe thermal problems, and conventional techniques of rejecting the heat to the atmosphere become impractical. The fuel is the only material present in sufficient bulk to be used as a heat sink. Thus, the fuel is subjected to aerodynamic heating and also is used to dissipate heat from lubricating oil, hydraulic fluid, electronic equipment, wheel wells, and cabin air. Consequently, the fuels may have to withstand both moderate temperatures for sustained periods in the fuel tanks and higher temperatures for brief periods during transfer from the tanks to the combustion chamber. Because of high temperatures, insoluble residue or gum may form in the fuel and contribute to heat exchanger fouling and to clogging of the fuel manifolds, nozzles, control systems, and other components of the fuel system.

Jan 1, 1962

By William T. Boyd

Foreign mining publications describing successful hydraulic mining installations, and successful domestic hydraulic mining in a gilsonite bed, have prompted the Federal Bureau of Mines to conduct a literature survey of foreign publications to determine if the hydraulic mining method can be applied to domestic coal mining. Most foreign publications do not give detailed data about the water pressures, water capacities, and production and manpower requirements for successful hydraulic mining, However, they do provide enough general data on mining conditions, manpower, and equipment used to show that conditions in many bituminous coal deposits in the United States may be favorable for economical coal extraction, using high-pressure water jets. Therefore, the Bureau proposes to conduct a field investigation to determine the most appropriate natural conditions, water pressures, and equipment for successful hydraulic mining of coal beds in the United States with variable dip, thickness, and hardness. In the past, technical personnel reviewing foreign mining reports assumed that a steeply pitching coal bed was necessary for successful hydraulic mining. Although the structure of the coal bed may be a factor in gaining assistance from overburden pressures or help in an integrated hydraulic mining and transportation system, the coal is broken mainly by the action of high-pressure, water-penetrating cracks, fissures, or cleats; therefore, the slope of the coal bed is not necessarily a determining factor in hydraulic mining.

Jan 1, 1959

By Joseph F. Davies

Along with the humanitarian need for preventing accidents the cost of injuries must be considered. As a means of bringing the facts concerning the prevalence of accidents in mining and their direct cost before the operating officials and others interested in accident prevention in the mining industry, the United. States Bureau of Mines ha as recently made studies and published reports dealing with these subjects in several States 4. This report gives available data on the causes and direct costs of accidents in Virginia coal mines for the 4-year period 1929 to 1932, inclusive. Mounting compensation costs and insurance rates resulting from mine injuries indicate the necessity of measures to decrease the number and severity of accidents. These direct costs, as well as additional losses of an indirect nature, can be eliminated from the cost of production to the extent that accidents are prevented or reduced in severity.

Jan 1, 1934

By J. Fletcher Smoak

Consumption of abrasive materials in the United States in 1981 was approximately $340 million, of which 37 % was industrial diamond (natural and synthetic), 39% manufactured abrasives, and 24% natural abrasives. Production and shipments of natural abrasives, excluding emery and industrial diamond, decreased in quantity 9% and 7%, respectively, when compared with that of 1980. Emery showed the largest change in output, decreasing 30% in quantity and 20% in value. Production of nonmetallic .manufactured abrasives material plus shipments of metallic abrasives material decreased 5% in quantity but increased 4% in value. Nonmetallic manufactured abrasives consisted of aluminum oxide (fused) and crude silicon carbide produced in the United States and Canada and accounted for 63% of the value of all manufactured abrasives. Metallic abrasives shipments included chilled and annealed iron shot and grit, steel shot and grit, plus cut wire, aluminum, and stainless steel shot and equaled 37 % of the value of all manufactured abrasives.

Jan 1, 1982

The principal activities of the Bureau of Mines Explosives Research Center from July 1, 1962, to June 30, 1963, are described briefly in part 1. Part 2 gives short abstracts of publications that appeared during fiscal year 1963; in general, the research reported in these publications antedates the report period.

Jan 1, 1965

By John C. Cook

Channel sand bodies ("wants" or "cutouts") are deposits of barren, hard sediments which interrupt production and pose safety hazards when encountered in underground coal mining. To locate these costly impediments to mining in advance, from the surface of the ground, the seismic reflection method is recommended. High-resolution (high frequency) techniques for shallow seismic exploration of coal beds have been worked out and are reported here, including a field example. Newly-developed high-frequency, digital recording equipment was used, together with light-weight shot-drilling equipment and a variety of down-hole seismic impulse sources. Techniques for rapid but complete coverage of a coal prospect area with a crew of 2 to 6 men n 2 or 3 vehicles are described in detail.

Jan 1, 1976

By D. B. Taliaferro, Thomas Jennings, C. M. Keithly

"INTRODUCTION This report describes the methods of development and operation and gives the results of controlled water injection into oil sands in Illinois. It is the third of a group relating to water-flooding operations in various States; previous reports have covered projects in Oklahome 5/ and Kansas.6/ Systmatic water flooding has been in progress, in these States, for more 10 years. In Illinois the Tide Water Associated Oil Co. has been injesting water into one or two wells on each of five leases in the Robinson Acknowledgments This study was made under the general supervision of R. A. Cattell, chief engineer, and H. C. Fowler, assistant chief engineer, Petroleum and Natural Gas Division, Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C., and N. A. C. Smith, supervising engineer, Petroleum Experiment Station, Bureau of Mines, Bartlesville, Okla., and under the direct supervision of Ludwig Schmidt, senior petroleum engineer, Bureau of Mines, Bartlesville, Okla.The cooperation of the operators who are conducting water-flooding projects and who have made this report possible by furnishing data on their operations is gratefully acknowledged. The writers are grateful also to the following members of the Bureau of Mines for assistance in preparation and criticism of the manuscript: C. J. Wilhelm, Franklin, Pa.; and Gustav Wade, R. E. Heithecker, and Peter Grandone, Bartlesville, Okla. The illustrations were prepared by Helen Cramer, Petroleum Experiment Station, Bureau of Mines, Bartlesville, Okla."

Aug 1, 1944

By Dennis J. Grigal

The objective of this contract was to monitor operating conditions of, four flooded, fibrous-bed filter panels used during normal underground mining operation and to analyse clogging and structural problems. After observing structural and clogging problems and conducting laboratory and field tests, a final, Flooded, fibrous-bed filter design which minimizes clogging and structural problems was recommended to the Bureau of Mines. This report also describes the dust sampling procedures used to determine the dust concentration at the flooded, fibrous-bed scrubber intake duct.

Jan 1, 1979

By W. P. Yant

This report describes result of a study of the carbon monoxide and particulate matter in the air of the Holland, Tunnel and metropolitan New York made by the Bureau of Mines (which had participated in the development

Jan 1, 1941

By E. L. Rawlins

The development of commercial natural-gas reserves in the Michigan stray sandstone horizon of central Michigan during the past few years has resulted in expansion of the natural-gas industry in that State. The location of the natural- gas reserves of Michigan in the general vicinity of domestic and industrial markets is of economic importance, and in supplying these markets with natural gas a reasonable knowledge of the extent and availability of the reserves is needed in formulating regulations for drilling gas wells and producing natural gas, in analyzing the feasibility of projects to construct natural-gas transmission lines, in promoting and developing markets for the domestic and industrial consumption of natural gas, and In solving many engineering and economic problems common to the natural-gas industry. The development of the natural-gas industry in Michigan has been related closely to the development of oil production. The potential oil production of Michigan is comparable with that in most of the eastern oil-producing States. The development of oil production probably will continue, especially in the central Michigan Basin area; and as wells are drilled to deep horizons in the search for oil, more knowledge will be obtained of the gas reserves in formations above the oil- bearing horizons.

Jan 1, 1936

By Mark Davis

As a follow-on to previous investigations, reduced treatment levels for the optimum fire retardant/preservative system were evaluated. An impregnation of 3.5 lbs/ft3 of Fyreprufe followed by 3.5 mils of Albi 107A plus an Albi 144 top coat provides adequate flammability and flame spread protection. However, there is a significant loss in compressive strength at this retention level, particularly parallel to the grain. A pilot-size pressure impregnation cell was installed for use in treating larger quantities of wood. Based on the optimum fire retardant/preservative treatment system - Fyreprufe/ACC impregnation followed by Albi 107A/144 intumescent paint - a model treatment pro¬cess was developed, capable of handling 3 million board feet per year. Associated annualized costs per thousand board feet (K bd. ft.) for treating 12" x 12" timber were calculated to be: Impregnation: $-63.00/K bd. ft. Coating: $112.00/K bd. ft. A literature search was conducted to identify materials and techniques suitable for a localized stench warning system for heated mine timbers. Based on this review, a number of stench warning concepts were developed. Those based on surface coating were given a preliminary laboratory evaluation.

Jan 1, 1982

The production and processing of crude petroleum and natural gas are the dominant economic sectors of the Middle East, providing more than 80 % of the region's foreign exchange. In 1992, the 15 countries that constituted the region accounted for 29.5 % of world crude petroleum output, 20 % of world natural gas plant liquid production, and 5 % of world dry natural gas production. Only Cyprus and Lebanon were not crude petroleum producers. A fairly wide range of non fuel minerals is also produced in the region. The most significant are boron minerals, bromine, chromite, gypsum, phosphate rock, potash, strontium, and sulfur. However, the variety of minerals produced, output levels, and the size of the overall non fuel mineral economy of the region is dominated by Iran and Turkey. Turkey, with a diverse mineral production and strategically situated between Europe and the Middle East, was first in world production of run-of-mine boron minerals, second in strontium behind Mexico, and fourth in pumice. It was also a significant world producer of chromite, magnesi'lm compounds, mercury, and sodium sulfate. Turkey was also the Middle East's largest cement and steel producer. Iran continued to expand output of most mineral commodities following the war with Iraq from 1980 to 1988. It was a significant world producer of gypsum and strontium and on its way to becoming a major iron and steel producer in the region. Despite a very small domestic mineral industry, Israel was second in world production of bromine and a significant producer of phosphate rock and potash. In terms of processed minerals, Israel was a major world diamond cutting center and exporter of cut diamond. Jordan ranked sixth in world production of phosphate rock. Saudi Arabia was eighth in world production of sulfur.

Jan 1, 1994

By Robert L. Lagace, Michael A. Grossman, Alfred G. Emslie

This supplement to the final report is a collection of interim and monthly reports and working memoranda prepared during the course of this program to document the progress, methods and results of the work. The supplement is divided into the self-contained sections briefly described below. I. SELECTED MONTHLY TECHNICAL LETTER REPORTS - This section is a collection of selected monthly technical letter reports that briefly summarizes the chronological development of the analyses and results, including the different concepts, theoretical approaches, and methods of data reduction and analysis explored, and the discoveries, insights and findings made along the way. More detailed treatments of the key developments and results are presented in the interim reports and working memoranda reproduced in subsequent sections of this supplementary report, and in the separately published final report. II. BACKGROUND THEORY FOR MEASUREMENT PROGRAM ON MEDIUM AND HIGH FREQUENCY RADIO TRANSMISSION IN COAL SEAMS - Working Memorandum - This working memorandum gives the initial background theory needed to guide the planned measurements and data analyses of this program to describe the propagation of radio waves-in coal seams for the frequency range of 50 to 5000 kHz. III. MODELLING AND DATA ANALYSIS OF IN-MINE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION - Interim Report - This interim report presents detailed treatments of the data analysis and modelling techniques used, and the associated results obtained from conductor-free area propagation data measured by T. Cory in the first set of six coal mines. The mines were located in three highcoal seams; the Pittsburgh seam in northern West Virginia, the Pocahontas No. 3 seam in Virginia, and the Herrin No. 6 seam in Illinois. IV. ANALYSIS OF MF PROPAGATION DATA FROM MARGARET NO. 11, NANTY GLO, EHRENFELD, AND ADRIAN COAL MINES - Interim Report - This interim report presents detailed treatments of several improved data analysis and Modelling methods applied to, and results obtained from, conductor-free area propagation data measured by T. Cory in the second set of four coal mines. These mines were located in three low-coal seams; the Upper Freeport seam in Pennsylvania and West Virginia and the Lower Freeport and Lower Kittaning seams in Pennsylvania. In addition, this report contains a reprint of two papers presented at a Bureau of Mines sponsored EM Guided Waves in Mine Environments Workshop held in Boulder Colorado. One paper describes the three-layer theoretical model and its application to the conductor-free data from the first six mines, while the second paper describes the theory developed for the coupling of loop antennas to a cable in a mine tunnel in a coal seam, and the model's application to data in the vicinity of cables taken at the Margaret No. 11 mine. V. A METHOD FOR NONINTRUSIVE, IN-SITU MEASUREMENT OF COAL AND ROCK CONDUCTIVITIES IN A COAL MINE TUNNEL - Working Memorandum - This working memorandum briefly describes a possible direct method, and its potential advantages and shortcomings, for performing in-situ measurements of coal and rock conductivities. VI. MODELLING AND DATA ANALYSIS OF IN-MINE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION FROM 50 to 5000 kHz - Interim Report - This interim report presents a summary comparison of theoretical and experimental results for conductor- free areas in eleven coal mines located in seven coal seams. It also summarizes the findings and their implications for intrinsically-safe, portable radio communications between roving miners.

Jan 2, 1980

By J. H. Hedges

During the World War Leadville was an important producer of manganese and maganiferous ores for then steel industry. Normally, the market for these ores is limited to the requirements of the local steel mill at Pueblo for low-grade ores used in making, basic pig iron containing 1 to 2 percent Mr and spiegoloison containing 20 percent Mn, but during the war and a brief period of postwar readjustment, a good deal of 25- to 40-percent manganese ore qua shipped to in-stern steel-manufacturing centers. Throughout the active life of the camp, manganiferous iron ore carrying a little silver and lead and sometimes as such as 35 percent Mn was chipped to load smelters for flux. The total reordered production is 936,024 tons of metallurgical ore shinned to steel mills and 2,576,514 tons of fluxing ore, much of it of metallurgical grade.

Jan 1, 1940

By H. E. Harris

It has long been recognized that one of the principal ways of combating dust in coal mines is by means of water sprays. However, spray systems, currently in use, clog or plug frequently, thereby reducing the effectiveness of dust control aid, in turn, possibly increasing the health hazard to mining personnel. Moreover, the maintenance and replacement of spray system components, e.g., nozzles and filters, can be expensive in terms of direct costs of labor and material, and the consequent loss of production. Recognizing these problems, the Bureau of Mines sponsored a research project on the "Development of a Non-Clogging Water Spray System"; this project was carried out by Eastern Associated Coal Corp. The overall objective of this project was to develop a non-clogging water spray system suitable for use in underground coal mines. Since most of the dust formed is at or near the working coal face, emphasis was placed on face equipment such as a continuous mining machine. To accomplish this objective, a two-phase project was carried out. The first phase involved determining the causes of spray nozzle and spray system clogging, determining the availability of spray nozzles or systems that could be modified to be non-clogging, and developing a non-clogging water spray system. Phase two was concerned with the fabrication and the laboratory and field testing of a non-clogging system. In each phase, there were both laboratory and field investigations, and the results of these investigations are presented in this report.

Jan 1, 1975

By Joseph A. DeCarlo

The rapid growth of the organic chemical industry in the United States and abroad has focused attention on the future raw-material sources for this important industry. Chemical products are essential to modern civilization; and millions of tons of organic chemicals are used annually, ranging from basic raw materials to finished chemical products such as drugs, cosmetics, and soaps. Hundreds of chemical products are made directly or indirectly from coal, but in this report "coal chemicals" will be limited to crude tar, crud light oil, and ammonia recovered in the high-temperature carbonization of bituminous coal and the important principal products obtained by processing these materials. Specifically these include benzene} toluene, xylene, naphthalene, creosote oil, tar acid oil, pitch, and ammonium sulfate. Therefore the term "coal chemicals", wherever used in this report, includes only these products and does not include the secondary or intermediate products such as styrene, synthetic phenol, aniline, phthalic anhydride, or finished products made from these, such as synthetic rubber, plastics, and dyes. The United States leads the world in production and consumption of coal chemicals. In the past five years nearly one-fourth of the total output of coal-tar crudes in the world was produced in the United States. Consumption of some of the more important products derived from these crudes such as benzene, toluene, xylene, and naphthalene, however, ranged from about one-third to one-half of the world total because of imports and production of benzene, toluene, and xylene from petroleum. The synthetic organic chemical industry of the United States was established during World War I on chemical raw materials obtained by the high-temperature carbonization of bituminous coal but this source of supply currently furnishes less than 40 percent. More than 60 percent of the chemical raw materials used to produce organic and inorganic chemical is supplied by the petroleum industry and production of petrochemicals is rising rapidly.

Jan 1, 1960

By Robert L. Lagace

[Suuple Iheorctrccil models are I'M lllolalcd to cltaraclerl/c medium frequency (MF) radio vase pi opaiation in undcrgiounli room arid pillar coal mines fur the purpose of predleiln the most lavolable operating fIegtucncics,md nr,ixunum communic;IIIoil ranges for pottahIe rldu)s with I top antennas. I or conductul IrCC areas, at hree layer propaeaIion IltodcI wit II a Iiallsmissloil IIIIi- lhlllllIIal'u11 lot the plupa!edti ii unlstallt Iris been dcvcloped ;md verified experimentally. 1 lie mode u1 propaCaUetl lakes Ills form of i parallel plane (0,t)) TIM lransnussu)nhne 1% PC of mode with the electric held vertical and the magnetic held hoti/cntal t itliin a planar coal scam in which the tunnels Can he ignored and which 1s hounded above and below hp richer conductivity rock. 1lie model lilt the data best river the 200 io 1000 kH/ frequency hand and exhibits a rc;;lon of optlnrul1l Pelffelntance, with respect Io maxnluiulg radio Communication range, between 300 and 100 klf/. Maximum cunununlcatrorl ranges are sliongls dependent oil the sigiial alleilliatroil sale, ant) Illelclulc on the electrical conductivltles of the coal seam and surrounding ruck. These ranges v;ny tutu about ,,5 Io 100 nleleis Ill a high Iuss scam such as the Ilelllit No. fl to about .100 to 400 meters in a low loss seam such as the Pittsburgh foil portable intrinsically safe radios. The ieslllls die haled on the comparison oftheorc' and experiment for eleven n n. ill sesen coal seams. V OT ate is dice: a conductor such as a power Cable, is present a model has been developed for the coupling of loop antennas to a low loss Coaxial TEM ti;u?smisslon line mode in which the cable acts as the inner conducl,lr and the rock above and below acts as the outer conductor. The electuc and md' nctic Itelds for till` (node are apprlixitllatcly transverse to the cahlC and fall oil expontially with distance in the transverse plane. The principle of reciprocity is used to simplify the analysis. More expelitnental data arc needed to help resolve discrepancies between the theory and the limited data available to date.]

Jan 1, 1980

By Edwin A. Clarke

[For almost 2 decades the Bureau of Mines has been Interested in converting solid fuels to liquid fuels. Small-scale laboratory investigations were carried on for a number of years.4/ This work wad expanded substantially under authority of Public Law 290, approved by the 78th Congress on May 5, 1945. As part of the. broadened program, coal-hydrogenation demonstration plant was designed and erected at Louisiana, Mo., where: hydrogen-manufacturing and compression equipment, shoes, electric power, and other utilities and facilities were available from a discontinued wartime ammonia works . The plant uses the direct -hydrogenation or Bergius process, but the process differs from prewar European practices in many respects. Many noteworthy improvements h eve bean made, particularly by substituting automatic instruments for manual control of process variable's, in line with modern American processing practices. The over-all objective of the demonstration plant is to bridge the gap between laboratory end commercial-scale operation by furnishing cost and engineering data to develop a synthetic liquid-fuels industry when it proves technically and economically justified. Fitting into the over-all program, specific objectives o early runs were to (1) train personnel who had no experience with this type of operation, (2) break in the installed equipment, (3) obtain successfully integrated operation of the entire plant, and (4) work towards obtaining data on the hydrogenation of coal-tar oil and a typical low-ash coal. In beginning fan integrated operation, it is common practice to operate and obtain reaonably smooth performance of each unit before the over-all operation is undertaken. The first part of the plant completed was the refinery, consisting of several fractionating systems, a stabilizer, and a chemical treater.]

Jan 1, 1953

By G. L. Bartlett

"INTRODUCTION The major objective of our research is to help reduce the incidence and severity of coal worker's pneumoconiosis (CWP). To that end, this project is designed to improve our understanding of the processes that lead to pulmonary dysfunction following mine dust exposure, and how those processes might be interrupted or attenuated. The response of the lung ' to inhaled particles is complex, and the course of development of disabling CWP is slow and unpredictable. From among the numerous cellular and molecular interactions involved in the pulmonary response to inhaled particles, this project is focussed on the role that the pulmonary alveolar macrophage (PAM) may play in regulating the activity of fibroblasts.The PAM is the lung cell that has the most immediate and the most obvious interaction with inhaled particles. Within a short period after particles are arrested in the alveolus of the lung, they are phagocytized (engulfed) by these specialized cells. The PAM then has a diverse potential repertoire of subsequent activities. Which reaction actually ensues is determined, in large part, by the nature of the phagocytized _particles. Activated PAMs produce a variety of products that may affect adjacent lung tissue, including superoxide free radical, elastase, collagenase, prostaglandins, platelet activating factor, etc. Those may well be important in the pathogenesis of CWP, but they are beyond the scope of this project. Background information that is cogent to this project has come primarily from investigations using animal models of silicosis and asbestosis. PAMs that have ingested silica particles synthesize and release molecules that control the behavior of surrounding cells. One such mediator is interleukin-1 (IL-1), a molecule that plays a central role in many aspects of the response to injury. It can stimulate fibroblasts (the cells that help to hold tissues together) to release the enzyme collagenase, resulting in breakdown of the structural collagen fibers that support the lung tissue. IL-1 also stimulates fibroblasts to undergo mitosis and to proliferate, which is an initial stage of fibrosis. Certain stimulants cause PAMs to release fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) that are distinct- from IL-1. Under other circumstances activated PAMs synthesize and release molecules that stimulate fibroblasts to accelerate synthesis of collagen fibers, thus contributing to fibrosis. Although these observations provide a valuable precedent for analysis of the mechanisms involved in CWP, their relevance to CWP cannot be assumed since most of those studies involved macrophages or fibroblasts obtained from tissues other than the lung, and because almost none of them have used CMD as the stimulating particles. Therefore, the goal of this project is to learn how exposure to CMD affects the behavior of PAMs, and in turn how products of dust-exposed PAMs affect fibroblasts and the process of fibrosis in the lung."

Jan 1, 1988

By Peter Grandone, Ludwig Schmict

The injection of oil-field brimJs into subsurface formations containing mineralized water ·now is .recognizud as the most satisfactory and effective means of disposal in Kansas.· Other disposal ·methods, such as impounding brines in evapOTation nonds and controlled diversion into surface streams, have not prov-ed entirely successful, principally. because the volumes of brine to be disposed of were large, the soil f;?xtr~~mely porous, the net evaporation is low, and the rairiiall insufficient fc)r adequati.:~ dilution of the brine. The disposal of brine by subsurfaCE) inj'ection is often: more. expensive than by either of the above surface methods; nevertheless, surface dis:pos?,l ow.ing to the damaging effe-c.ts of· salt water to plant, animal and aquatic life and to potable water supplies has been:a long-continuing problem with many technical, economic, and 'legal·complexiti,2s

Aug 1, 1943