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By A. Andreas

New Mexico retained its position in 1938 as the sixth largest oil-producing state, with a total production of 35,510,176 bbl. This was 2,875,598 bbl. less than the 1937 production of 38,485,774 bbl., or a decrease of 0.077 per cent, which was caused by the lack of pipe-line facilities and storage at the pipe-line terminals. The production for Lea County (excluding Maljamar) was 32,926,788 bbl.; for Eddy County (including Maljamar) was 2,225,411 bbl.; and for northwestern New Mexico (San Juan and McKinley Counties), 357,977 bbl. The average daily nonmarginal well allowable for Lea County on Jan. 1, 1938, was 65 bbl. At the close of the year it was 49 bbl. The average daily pipe-line runs for domestic consumption were less than the state allowables recommended by the United States Bureau of Mines. There was a demand for Artesia crude for foreign export, which if included in the daily production for New Mexico would be slightly in excess of the daily production recommended for New Mexico by the Bureau of Mines. The daily average production for the year was 97,329 barrels. There were 622 completions in the state, of which 520 were oil wells; 16 hydrocarbon gas wells; 5 carbon dioxide gas wells, and 81 dry holes. Of the dry holes 38 were in or near-by proven fields and the remainder, 43, were wildcats. Five new fields were discovered in New Mexico during 1938, three in Lea County and two in Eddy County. Southeastern New Mexico Lea County.—The Monumcnt field was the largest producing field in Lea County, with 9,440,334 bbl., and was closely followed by the Eunice field with 8,872,335 bbl. The Hobbs field was third with 5,010,414 bbl. The greatest activity in Lea County was in the Vacuum pool, with 129 completions, of which 126 were oil wells and three were dry holes. The Texas Company completed its Corbin NO. 1 in the KW 1/4 SW1/4 sec. 10, T. 18 S., R. 33 E. in August. This well was drilled to a depth of 5118 ft. in a white sand, encountering salt water. It was plugged back to 4315 ft, and pumped 43 bbl. of 36" gravity oil in 12 hr. It was approximately 6 miles southwest of the closest production in the Vacuum

Jan 1, 1939

By E. W. Dewing

The solubility of A14C3 in cryolite melts has been determined by holding the melt with aluminum in a graphite crucible for 4 hr at temperature, quenching the crucible in water, and analyzing the frozen salt by CH4 evolution. The solubility is given by log(wt % Al4C3) = 1.298 -1.l74 (wt ratio NaF/AlF3) independent of temperature in the range 985" to 1080°C. Additions ofA1203, .NaCl, CaF2, or LiF up to 10 wt pct do not affect the solubility, provided that LiF and CaF2 are replaced by equivalent NaFin calculating the ratio. The variation with ratio can be accounted for quantitatively on the hypothesis that the Mechanism of solution is Al4C3 + 2AIF3 = 3Al2CF2 since the solubility varies as (aAIF3) 2/3; Mechanisms involving C", C2- , AlC- , A12C2+, and Al2CF+are re-jected. At ratios above 1.5 truces of c;- are also present. It was noticed some years ago in this laboratory that carbon specimens made cathodic in a cryolite bath decrease in diameter over a period of time.' It was also found that cryolite which had been melted with aluminum in a graphite crucible was sometimes yellow, and that A14C3 could be seen intimately embedded in the cryolite crystals. CH, could be recovered by acid attack. There was thus reason to believe that A14C3 had a genuine solubility in molten cryolite, and the object of this work was to measure it. EXPERIMENTAL AND RESULTS A graphite crucible, 2 in. ID and 2.5 in. deep with a close-fitting lid, contained about 150 g of cryolite (plus additives) and about 20 g of 99.99 pct pure Al. It was placed in a vertical Inconel furnace tube, covered with refractory brick to provide thermal insulation, and the top of the tube was roughly sealed with disks of asbestos paper. An alumina tube led argon down to the level of the top of the crucible to expel air, and an alumina sheath with a Pt-10 pct Rh ther-mocouple inside was positioned between the crucible and the wall of the Inconel tube. The tube was heated in an electrical resistance furnace for the desired length of time; the refractory bricks were then removed, and the crucible was lifted out with tongs and quenched in water. After such a crucible was broken open it could be seen that its inner surface was yellow owing to the presence of A1,C3, and sometimes needle-like crystals could be observed (at X75 magnification) growing out into the nielt. It was concluded that Al,C, had been present as a separate phase when the crucible was at tenlperature and that the melt had been saturated: in

Jan 1, 1970

ARTHUR BRICE deSAULLES In the death of, Major A. B. deSaulles at South Bethlehem, Pa., on Dec. 24, 1917, the Institute lost a valued and esteemed member, one of the last few of those who, in May, 1871, at Wilkes-Barre, attended the first meeting of the Institute, in response to a call that had been issued by R. P. Rothwell, Eckley B. Coxe, and Martin Coryell. Major deSaulles was born Jan. 8, 1840, at New Orleans, and was the son of Louis and Armide Longer deSaulles, each of French descent. As a boy he was privately tutored in the South, and then schooled in New England to enter the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, where he was graduated with honors in the class of '59. Following his graduation he studied in France and Germany for two years, returning to New Orleans in 1861 to enter the Confederate Army, in which he served with distinction- as an engineer throughout the Civil War, rising to the rank of Major and the command of his Corps. After the close of the war he pursued his studies abroad for another year, returning to New York in April, 1866, when be became engineer for the New York & Schuylkill Coal Company, and remained at its plant near Wilkes-Barre until October, 1871, when it was sold to the Philadelphia & Reading Coal and Iron Company.. He then returned to New York where for several years he was engaged in the practice of his profession. In 1869, he married Catharine M. Heckscher, daughter of Charles Heckscher of New York City. Mrs. deSaulles survives him. In 1876, Major deSaulles became superintendent of the Dunbar Furnace Company in Fayette County, Pa., with which company he remained until 1883. As a feature of the Pittsburgh meeting in May, 1879, Major and Mrs. deSaulles entertained the members of the Insti-

Jan 4, 1918

By Paul Sterling

The general impression regarding the preparation of merchantable anthracite is that it is confined to a colossal, grimy structure, called a " coal-breaker." This name is a misnomer; for the desired result is not to break the coal, but to prevent its being broken. Preparation may be said to begin at the face of the chamber, with the mining and loading of the coal. Local conditions vary, not only ill the same field or basin, but also in the same mine, so that there is no fixed empirical rule governing the method of blasting or cutting coal. Tests should be made, when possible, to determine the explosive, or the mechanical coal-cutter, which will produce the largest percentage of what are locally known as " lump " and " prepared sizes " of anthracite. The prepared sizes are those mostly consumed for clomestic purposes. All other sizes might be called by-products of the anthracite industry; for they are not especially desirable, being the degradation resulting from the mining and handling of a brittle or laminated material. Being low in volatile combustible matter, anthracite burns most successfully when nearly of a uniform size, permitting the easy passage of air through the voids. This accounts for the large number of sizes into which the coal is separated. Table I. gives the various sizes, the diameter of ring over and through which each size is made, and the usual purpose for which it is employed.

Jan 1, 1912

By E. T. Turkdogan, P. Grieveson

Experimental results are presented for the rate of solution of nitrogen in a iron in the temperature range 750° to 873°C and in 6 iron in the temperature range 1410° to 1470°C. It is shown that the rate controlling process is diffusion of nitrogen into the iron. The diffusiting of nitrogen in a and 6 iron is derived from the results, and the temperature dependence of the diffusivity is represented by the equation D = 7.8 x e- 18,900/RT sq cm per sec. The solubility of nitrogen in a and 6 iron, in equilibrium with 1 atm pressure of nitrogen, has been measured. Using these results and other available data, it is found that the variation of the logarithm of nitrogen solubility with the reciprocal of absolute temperature is nonlinear. In an Appendix, some results of Darken and Smith are presented for the rate of solution of nitrogen in iron using ammonia + hyidrogen mixtures. These data also support the view that diffudsion of nitrogen in iron is the rate-controlling process when ammonia + hydrogen mixtures are used. A considerable effort has been made to obtain data on the solubility1-5 and diffusivity of nitrogen in a iron6-l2 because an understanding of the effect of nitrogen on the properties of steel must be based on an accurate knowledge of the properties of nitrogen in pure iron. However, no information is available concerning the kinetics of solution of nitrogen in a and 6 iron. Recently the authors13 have investigated the rate-controlling mechanism operating in the kinetics of solution of nitrogen in y iron. This study was directed to determine the rate-controlling processes for similar reactions with a and 6 iron as well as to establish values for the solubility of nitrogen in equilibrium with nitrogen gas in a and a iron. EXPERIMENTAL The procedure used in experiments to determine the rate of solution in cylindrical iron rods was the same as that described in a previous communication.13 Ferrovac E grade iron used in all experiments contained the following impurities in weight percent: C, 0.005; Mn, 0.001; P, 0.002; S, 0.006; Si, 0.006; Ni, 0.025; Cr, 0.002; V, 0.004; W, 0.02; Mo, 0.01; Cu, 0.001; Co, 0.01; 0, 0.007. After cleaning the surface, the iron rods were treated in an atmosphere of purified hydrogen for 17 hr before the reacting gas was introduced for known experimental times. After quenching, the samples were sectioned radially and analyzed for nitrogen. In addition to experiments using rods, iron foils were used in the measurements of solution rates of nitrogen in a iron. The foils of two different thicknesses were prepared by cold rolling Ferrovac E grade iron cylindrical rod to 0.051 and 0.152 cm. Foil samples were used in a rectangular form 5 cm long and 1.25 cm wide. The specimens were thoroughly cleaned of surface oxide with fine emery cloth and degreased with carbon tetrachloride immediately before entry into the furnace. The experimental procedure was the same as that used in the study with rods. At the completion of an experiment, the foil samples of the nitrogenized iron were analyzed for nitrogen after discarding 0.3 cm from the perimeter of the specimen. Iron foils were nitrogenized and denitrogenized in the a and 6 range with a gas mixture of 95 pct N and 5 pct H for times varying from 5 min to 2 hr. Results obtained for the average composition of nitrogen in iron for these experiments are presented in Fig. 1. Prior to the denitrogenization experiments, the samples were saturated with nitrogen at 1000°C and 0.67 atm N, giving a uniform nitrogen concentration of 0.0204 pct. According to the known a-y phase boundary in the Fe-N system,14 this composition lies within the ferrite region at temperatures 750" to 850°C. Use of this initial nitrogen content insured that reaction occurred between the gas and a single solid phase, a iron. Examples of the results for the mean concentrations of nitrogen in cylindrical iron rods, 0.356 cm radius for both the a and 6 ranges are given in Fig. 2. Typical examples of the results obtained for the radial distributions of nitrogen in rods are presented in Fig. 3. It appears that the results for radial distributions can be extrapolated to constant surface compositions which agree with the equi-

Jan 1, 1964

By R. T. DeHoff, L. J. Buteau, J. Kronsbein

Network topology is introduced and used to describe sinter bodies at various stages of the sintering process. The matrices of incidence, loop-branch. tree-branch, and cut-branch are constructed and their relationship to the three-dimensional void space and the common two-dimensional bounding surface is established. The sintering body is assunzed to remain connected but this is not so with the void space. The topological invariants known as Betti numbers are related to this observed fact and provide parameters which measure the progress of the sintering process. They are extracted from the matrices by means of known algebraic operations. Experimental procedures are given which permit actual construction of the various matrices and determination of the Betti numbers by serial sectioning of the sinter bodies. A sinter body is produced by exposing a large number of metallic particles (0.00001 to 0.3 in. diam) to a temperature that is near but below their melting point. When these particles are maintained at such a temperature for a sufficient length of time, it is found that the interparticle contacts become welded. As time increases, these welds, often referred to as necks, grow. All of the space between the particles constitutes a single connected void; an ultimate consequence of sintering is the breaking up of the void into separated parts. A mathematical apparatus for describing the geometric characteristics of a sinter body at each stage of the process was first proposed by F. N. Rhinesl when he introduced the application of topology to this problem. He described the sinter body in terms of one of its topological invariants, the genus. The most important advantage of a topological description is invariance with respect to continuous deformations. This means that particle sizes and shapes need not be considered, resulting in considerable simplification and generalization of the geometric description. In the case of a sinter body, wherein the internal geometry is particularly complex, the simplification provided by topological concepts is absolutely essential. The important parameters in the Rhines model are the number of particles and the interparticle contacts. The invariant considered called genus is given by Euler's formula for the connectivity of two-dimensional surface of the sinter body. This surface includes the pore-solid interface. The Euler formula is G = C - P + 1 [1] where C = number of interparticle contacts, P = number of particles, and G = genus of the surface bounding the sinter body. In topology the term genus may be used to mean the number of self re-entrant cuts that can be made on a closed surface without dissecting it into more than one connected surface. Its use is restricted to the surface and does not apply to the three-dimensional volume enclosed or excluded by it. In the case of sintering, the volume enclosed by the surface is defined as the sinter body; the volume excluded will be referred to as the void space. There is an intrinsic reason for using genus as a characteristic number associated with a sinter body. The genus is related to the Gaussian curvature by the integral of the product of the principal curvatures taken over the entire surface of the sinter body, as given by

Jan 1, 1965

Low metal prices prevailing at the beginning of 1950 stimulated the search for improved mining methods. More experience was gained during the year with such new developments as the jackleg drill, millisecond delays as applied underground, trackless mining, and Diesel powered equipment. One of the outstanding innovations in mining practice was the starting of the Round Mountain "dry land gold dredging operation." The Government is now inviting the mining industry to open up every available source of new metal supply and this circumstance will undoubtedly speed the development of new machines. New methods will also result but it is doubtful if economic efficiency will be at its peak.

Jan 2, 1951

By J. W. Freeman, E. E. Reynolds, A. E. White

Fram a study of 63 systematic alloy modifications it was found that molybdenum, tungsten, and columbium, added individually or simultaneously, and increases in chromium cause major improvements in 1200°F rupture strengths of Cr-Ni-Co-Fe base alloys. Rupture strengths were a function of the effect of composition modifications on both the inherent creep resistance and the amount of deformation the alloy would tolerate before fracture. THIS paper describes the results of an investigation of a series of alloys with systematic variations of the chemical composition of the following basic alloy: C, 0.15: Mn, 1.7; Si, 0.5; Cr, 20.0; NI, 20.0: Co, 20.0: Mo, 3.0; W, 2.0; Cb, 1.0; N, 0.12; Fe, 32.0 pct. The 62 modifications of this alloy were produced under conditions which minimized all factors influencing properties at high temperatures except composition. Melting, fabrication, and heat treatment were carefully maintained constant. Stress-rupture properties at 1200°F were used as the primary criteria of evaluation of the alloy. The objective of the study was to obtain data for determining the fundamental role of the influence of alloying elements on properties of heat-resistant alloys at high temperatures. In addition the results should be useful in determining optimum chemical compositions, the sensitivity of properties to variations in composition, and the degree to which alloy content could be reduced while retaining worthwhile properties. It is difficult or impossible to develop correlations between properties at high temperatures and systematic variations in chemical composition from published data for wrought heat-resistant alloys developed for gas turbines.' ' The main reason for this is the extreme dependence of the properties on conditions of treatment of the alloys." In most cases variation in final treatments between alloys so influences the properties that the influence of chemical composition is obscured. In addition it is recognized Table I. Basic Alloy and Some Modifications Used Basic AllOy, Variations in Element Pct Composition, Pct C 0.15 0.08. 0.40. 0.60 Mn 1.1 0.03,0.25.0.50,1.0,2.5 S1 0.50 1.2, 1.6 Cr 20.0 10, 30 Ni 20.0 0, 10,30 Co 20.0 0. 10, 30 MO 3.0 0. 1.2.3, 5, 7 W 2.0 0, 1, 5, 1 Cb 1.0 0.2,4,6 N 0.12 0.004, 0.08, 0.18 Fe 32.0 that variations exist between heats of the same alloy which are related to melting practice and that there is a strong possibility that conditions of hot working influence response to final treatments. The development of heat-resistant alloys has been based on the gradual accumulation of data roughly related to composition from extensive testing programs. There is every reason to believe that in most cases the optimum compositions have been achieved by this procedure in the alloys commercially available. There are, however, very little data showing the influence of systematic variations of composition free from the influence of other factors, particularly for alloys of the type investigated. Several investigators of cast alloys have demonstrated compositional effects, notably Grant,1-6 Epremian,t Guy,8 and Harder and Gow.9 Sykes10 eviewed the work on the wrought alloy Rex 78 and the systematic variations of carbon, copper, molybdenum, and cobalt leading to the development of the stronger Rex 337A alloy. From the papers by Wilson11 and Henry12 it is possible to deduce the beneficial effect of substituting cobalt for iron in 0.45 pct C-20 pct Cr-20 pct Ni-4 pct Mo-4 pct W- 4 pct Cb alloys. Wilson mentioned but did not present the extensive compositional studies involved in developing these alloys. Binder" showed optimum properties for 3, 2, and I pct, respectively, for molybdenum, tungsten, and columbium in 20 pct Cr-20 pct Ni-20 pct Co-30 pct Fe alloys for limited systematic variations of these

Jan 1, 1953

By David Cornell, Yusuf K. Sukkar

The fundamental differential equation for fluid flow has been rearranged, integrated numerically for natural gases, and the results presented in tabular and graphical form suitable for the direct calculation of vertical gas flow problems. The integration is rigorous except for the use of a constant average temperature. Both static and flowing bottom-hole pressures may be calculated by (his method without resort to trial and error procedures. INTRODUCTION Bottom-hole pressures can be determined either by direct measurement with a bottom-hole pressure gauge or by calculation. Since measurement with a bottom-hole pressure gauge is costly, calculation of bottom-hole pressures is to be preferred when possible. Calculation involves knowledge of the wellhead pressure, the properties of the gas, the depth of the well, the flow rate, the temperature of the gas, and the size of the flow line. These quantities must be combined in a suitable equation for vertical flow. Several equations have been developed for the purpose of calculating gas flow through both horizontal and vertical pipes1,2,4,5,6,7,8,9 These equations all have the basic differential equation for flow as their starting point. They differ only in the assumptions which are made in order to simplify the integration step. The bottom-hole pressures calculated using any of the better known equations are in good agreement with bottom-hole pressures calculated by a more rigorous but considerably more tedious stepwise integration method. All of these methods, however. require a trial and error solution for the calculation of flowing bottom-hole pressures. The purpose of this paper is to present a method which provides a direct solution of static and flowing bottom-hole pressures without use of a trial and error solution. At the same time the method involves fewer simplifying assumptions than any of the previous methods used, except lor the lengthy stepwise method. The derivation of any practical flow equation begins with the basic differential equation which is rigorous for almost all flow problems. The five terms in Equation 1 represent the potential energy, the potential energy of position, the kinetic energy, the shaft work done, and the energy losses due to motion of the fluid respectively. Equation 1 reduces to Bernoulli's theorem for the case of horizontal flow of an incompressible fluid, no work done, and no energy losses due to friction. In the present case, the term (v) (dv)/(g,.) can be shown to be quite negligible compared to the other terms, and is therefore neglected in the derivation. The term — dws includes work done by a pump or turbine in the system and is zero in this case. The frictional losses in the pipe are included in the term — d(lw) which is expressed in terms of the Moody friction factor as in Equation 2. (f) (v2) (dL) d(lW) = (f)(V2) (dl)/(2) (g) (d) The specific volume of a gas can be expressed in terms of the temperature, pressure, molecular weight, and compressibility factor. The velocity of the gas can be expressed in terms of the weight rate of flow, the specific volume, and the dimensions of the pipe.The reduced pressure Pr is to be used because z can be expressed as a function of Pr and Tr alone for most natural gases:

Jan 1, 1956

By Emile Gyss

THE speed of drilling rock has become an impor-tant factor in mining operations, while the place-ment of holes, kind, and quantity of explosive used. are equally important. These are a function of the rock hardness and toughness. Both of these fac-tors must be considered in compiling a table that will enable a mine operator or engineer to estimate drilling speeds in a given rock, knowing its hardness, and from its toughness, the dynamite required. The hardness of a homogeneous rock may be defined as its resistance to a penetrating medium, such as a drill-steel bit, and toughness, its resistance to with-stand rupture by the tearing apart of its minerals or parts of the same mineral. Rock hardness, as it has here been defined, is a function of the hardness of the component grains composing it, as well as grain size, shape, arrangement, and binding minerals. Rock tough-ness depends on substantially the same factors, but is measured by a totally different method. The units in which rock hardness is usually ex-pressed are either relative values or alphabetical desig-nations which carry no definite quantitative meaning. R. M. Raymond has suggested the measurement of com-posite rock hardness, based on mineral hardness as ob-tained by the Moh scale. This is done by multiplying the percentage of each mineral in a rock by the Moh mineral hardness and dividing by 100. These values convey a clearer conception in the minds of men in-terested in rock work -and are the basis of the units used in Tables 1 and 2. The hardness of rocks as it has been variously de-fined may be determined by different methods. The first method is one in which the proportionate average of the hardness of minerals making up a rock is the basis for classification. The other factors of grain size, shape, arrangement, and binding power are not considered.

Jan 6, 1927

By F. D. Patchen

Changes in the properties of partland cement upon the addition of fine-ground silica are discussed. Data were collected from formulations cured for periods up to 60 days at temperatures varying from 180" to 350°F. Compressive strengths, permeabilities and thickening times are compared. It is demonstrated that addition of find-ground silica in proper proportion results in a hydrated cement with superior properties above 230°F; i.e., early compressive strengths are higher and increase with additional curing, permeabilities are significantly lnrver and thickening times are increased. X-ray analysis of hydrated cement samples have been used to determine more fully the complex chemistry of these systems. Dicalcium silicate alpha-hydrate was found in all neat cements cured above 260°F. A 10 weight per cent silica addition produced a maximum amount of this phase. Xonotlite and tobermorite have been identified as hydration products at 320°F in systems containing 35 or more weight per cent silica. Formation of these components appears to be primarily responsible for the gain in strength and reduction of permeability observed after the addition of silica. INTRODUCTION For several years it has been recognized that loss of compressive strength occurs when portland cement is cured at a temperature above 250°F. This phenomenon has been called "strength retrogression". More recently it has been recognized that increased permeability usually is associated with decreased compressive strength at these temperatures. At curing temperatures above 300°F, these factors reach serious proportions. A compressive strength loss of 50 per cent between curing times of 24 hours and 14 days has been reported,' and permeabilities as high as 10 md have been measured in neat cements cured at 320°F for seven days.' Earlier investigators,' although unsuccessful in eliminating strength retrogression, stated ". . . .it appears possible that by the proper selection of additives for cement, strength loss with age at high temperatures can be either eliminated or considerably lessened". One solution suggested was the use of a pozzolanic material, hydrated lime, and a retarder. Menze15 in 1934 discovered that portland cement containing finely divided silica possessed high compressive strengths when the curing temperature was 350°F. The use of such a composition is now an established practice in the manufacture of steam-cured cement blocks. It is reasonable to assume that the same beneficial effect can be used advantageously in high-temperature oilwell cementing operations. Ludwig first mentioned the use of sand for this purpose. Later, a portland cement containing moderate additions of silica flour and retarded with CMHEC, a cellulose derivative. was recommended for high-temperature application." These formulations have been successfully employed in the field."'" This paper presents the results of a research program to test the efficacy of finely ground silica in increasing the compressive strength and reducing the permeability of oilwell cement compositions containing portland cement. Included also are X-ray diffraction patterns of powdered samples which have been used to determine some of the important chemical reactions occurring in these systems. LABORATORY PROCEDURES AND MATERIALS All compressive-strength test specimens were prepared and cured from a slurry in accordance with API RP 10B, with two modifications. A final curing pressure of 5,000 psi was maintained for a one- or three-day period; but, for further curing, pressures were reduced to the vapor pressure of water at the curing temperature. Also, the water content was varied in samples containing silica to maintain the slurry viscosity within a range of 5 to 15 poise as measured on a consistometer. Test specimens at 180°T were cured in a water bath at atmospheric pressure. At higher temperatures the specimens were cured in a steam-jacketed high-pressure curing vessel at 5,000 psi for a one- or three-day period. cubes cured for longer periods were removed from the pressure-curing vessel after 24 hours, sealed in small bombs containing water and placed in an aging oven.

By J. J. Rutledge

THE first method of working coal mines in the middle western states, more particularly in Illinois, Indiana and Missouri, was by means of the so-called single-entry method. In this method a single main passageway, or entry, was driven in the coal seam. with no parallel passageways, and from this pas-sageway or entry there were turned at intervals sim-ilar cross-passageways or entries, and from these cross-passageways, if the coal seam worked lay fairly horizontal, rooms were turned right and left. These crude methods of working were followed when the com-panies opening the mines were small and of very limited capital, and when the demand for coal was small and irregular. The principal desire was to produce coal in the short-est possible time and at the cheapest price. The chief evil resulting from such method of working was de-fective ventilation, although there were other serious drawbacks. There were then few or no good mining laws and no restrictions on those operating the coal mines. The hours of labor were long, the wages low, and the miners accordingly worked hard. All the coal was either sheared or undercut with a pick by hand. Very little solid shooting and no machine mining was done. What little air entered the mine, openings was introduced through the entries or. headings and thence conducted through the rooms by means of curtains; in many cases, as the workings became more exten-sive, the number of curtains added so materially to the mine resistance that ventilation was extremely in-efficient. Shots were fired by the miners at any time during the working shift and consequently there was more or less powder smoke or fumes in the mine work-ings all day long. Moreover, the working days were much longer than at present. The fine, dry coal-dust falling from the miners' picks while they were shear-ing or undercutting the coal filled the mine atmosphere and was taken into the lungs of the mine employees.

Jan 2, 1927

By A. B. Cox, L. W. Wark

In the paper on the development of the flotation process at Broken Hill (Australia) prepared by the Broken Hill Branch of the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy and published in its Proceedings for 1930 (N. S. 80), it is stated that the concentration of ores by flotation has been established on a commercial basis in Australia since 1904 and that differential flotation was practised at Broken Hill in 1912. Since then, progress in flotation practice throughout the world has been rapid, and during recent years the knowledge of the reactions between comparatively modern so-called chemical promoters or collecting agents and the mineral surfaces has been broadened by the published accounts of many investigators, particularly those working in American universities. Because of the benefits the Australian mining industry has derived from the flotation process, it was felt that the industry should take some part in the efforts that are being made to extend the knowledge of the principles on which the flotation process is based. Accordingly, early in 1930, three Broken Hill mining companies—the Broken Hill South, the North Broken Hill, and the Zinc Corporation—together with the Electrolytic Zinc Co. of Australasia, Ltd., and the Mount Lyell Mining & Railway Co., established a laboratory in the chemistry department of the University of Melbourne for the purpose of investigating the principles underlying flotation. Subsequently, the Burma Corporation, Ltd., expressed a desire to cooperate. The two authors are directly employed and controlled by these six organizations, and the cost of the investigation is divided equally among them. The research has been carried out under the general direction and in close cooperation with Harry Hey, chief metallurgist for the Electrolytic Zinc Co. of Australasia, Ltd., and the authors desire to place on record their indebtedness to him for his ever willing help and constructive criticism. After an extensive search of the literature, it was decided to determine in a preliminary investigation whether the effect of chemical collectors could be evaluated quantitatively by the "contact-angle" method. This preliminary investigation showed that with the bubble machine of

Jan 1, 1935

Frank H. Probert, A.R.S.M., Morenci, Arizona (communication to the Secretary): The management of mines and the system of bookkeeping employed are subjects of great interest to mine-superintendents, and such papers as that of Mr. Davis callnot fail to attract attention. The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, England, has done much within the last three years to promote discussion on the many systems adopted throughout the mining world; and any papers giving individual experience will benefit that class of men who are charged with the cconomical management of mining properties. It is often said that " a good mine shows a good manager," and more often that mismanagement is the chief cause of poor returns; or, as Mr. A. G. Charleton puts it, in his able paper on " Mining Accounts and Cost-Sheets,"* " accident may, and often

Jan 1, 1902

By F. R. Brotzen, A. R. Troiano, E. L. Harmon

Precipitation processes leading to drastic property changes are a frequent occurrence in titanium alloys containing large amounts of the retained high temperature P phase. In order to establish the kinetics and nature of these precipitation processes, a series of Ti-V alloys was studied. Time-temperature-transformation diqgrams were obtained for 12.5 and 15 pct V-Ti alloys. These diagrams consisted of two intersecting C-shaped curves: one in the high temperature region for the euilibrium transformation P +u+P, and another at lower temperatures depicting the formation of the meta-stable transition phase, o. Presence of the transition phase retarded the precipitation of the equilibrium a phase. Deformation of retained P resulted in the formation of the o phase. Reversion and retrogression phenomena of the transition phase were observed. A negative temperature coefficient of resistance was found in quenched alloys containing from 15 to 20 pct V. CERTAIN titanium-base alloys can be heat treated to produce appreciable changes in properties. For example, remarkably high hardness values may be obtained by aging or isothermal quenching treatments. Most of the information available to date on the hardening of titanium-base alloys has been systematized recently in an article by L. D. Jaffe.' It was pointed out by that author that the hardening was the result of the decomposition of the retained j3 phase to the equilibrium constituents, a and p, and that this decomposition had many of the characteristics of an age-hardening reaction. Recent work by Frost et al.' 3 has contributed much to the fundamental understanding of the hardening mechanism in titanium-base systems. These authors established the presence of a transition phase in the transformation from j3 to a + j3, which they designated o. The transition phase, in their opinion, was at least partially responsible for the hardening and embrittling effects which accompanied low temperature aging. The present investigation of the mechanism and kinetics of the hardening reaction was carried out for the Ti-V system. Ti-V alloys were ideally suited for a study of the decomposition of j3, since age hardening was known to occur readily in this system." Moreover, no intermetallic compounds occur in this system, Fig. 1, thus simplifying the interpretation of the results. Material and Procedure Alloys containing 12.5 and 15 pct V were prepared by Battelle Memorial Institute from iodide titanium furnished by Watertown Arsenal and vanadium of 99.8 pct purity. Ingots of 8 Ib each were prepared by arc melting in an inert atmosphere with a tungsten electrode and water-cooled copper crucible. Each of the ingots was melted once, forged at 1600°, and rolled at 1400°F. Following this, the ingots were remelted, forged, and then rolled to % in. sq bars, which were subsequently grit blasted, pickled, and wire brushed. Another set of alloys containing nominally 17.5 and 20 pct V was produced by the Research Div., New York University. These alloys were arc melted in an inert atmosphere in lots of 20 g each. Heat-Treating Procedure: Whenever feasible, specimens were heat treated in high vacuum resistance furnaces at pressures below 5x10." mm of Hg. Aging and isothermal quenching treatments were generally carried out in salt baths. Specimens were not attacked by the salt, provided the tempera-

Jan 1, 1956

By Danforth R. Hale, R. E. Blair

Minerals for electronic and optical uses divide easily into two sections: (1) quartz and (2) minerals other than quartz. Quartz Quartz, having a great usefulness discovered by the radio communication enthusiasts about 1918, has become a subject of amazingly expanded interest in the US over the past decade as a man-made mineral and a multimillion dollar crystal-growing business. An economic summary of the commercial growing of quartz crystals has a place in a handbook directed to the mineral engineering industry when it is remembered that quartz crystals have long been an important commercial mineral, and that the raw material for "cultured quartz"-that is to say, quartz crystals grown through the ingenuity of man-is still natural quartz. Nearly all the natural crystals come from Brazil. The larger pieces which meet rigorous standards of quality are used for electronic and, to a lesser extent, optical components. Smaller pieces and fragments are used for vitreous silica. The need for high quality material in quantity led to US government-sponsored research programs in the 1940s that have resulted in the factory growing of beautiful crystals of prescribed shape, size, and quality. The development of the cultured quartz crystal is typical of man's success in adapting the product of the mine to increasingly sophisticated uses. A remarkable achievement perhaps, but foreshadowed by experiments in 1908 by Giorgio Spezia (1908), an Italian geologist studying the relative effects of temperature and alkaline environment on the solubility of quartz. Modern radio equipment is most often controlled as to frequency by the presence in the circuit of a separately added "crystal"-the 1918 discovery responsible for the existence and growth of the quartz industry. The "crystal" is quartz, but this component is a carefully oriented and prepared slice from a crystal, but not a crystal as recognized by a rock hound or seen in a museum. How quartz operates to control frequencies is not a proper subject for a handbook on industrial minerals, and references should be consulted (Cady, 1964; Mason, 1964). Quartz belongs to that class of materials called dielectrics: those that do not conduct an electric current but permit electric fields to exist and act across them. Quartz shows the "piezoelectric effect," which means that when a quartz plate is mechanically deformed against its natural stiffness, one of its surfaces becomes negatively charged, the other, positively charged. When the plate is released from the stress quickly, the charges disappear as the plate regains its original shape, but because of mechanical momentum the plate deforms in the opposite direction (to a lesser amount) and the surfaces correspondingly become charged in the opposite direction. By coating the two surfaces thinly with metal and attaching flexible wires, these charges may be brought into an electronic circuit. If the surfaces are suddenly electrically charged by movement of current through the wires, the "converse piezoelectric effect" occurs -the plate deforms. Carry the thought further and it is realized that an alternating current flowing through the wires responds to the mechanical oscillation of the plate and is keyed to this oscillation. By controlling the thickness of the plate its mechanical vibration frequency can be varied through a wide range. One type of quartz plate, called the AT-cut, having a precisely defined orientation with respect to the crystallographic axes of the crystal, vibrates on a microscopic scale much as a book would deform when placed flat on a table and the top cover moved parallel back and forth with the hand. There are at least 17 other orientations which have been studied, some of

Jan 1, 1983

By P. P. Gregory

The rate of drilling operations in the West Texas district during 1940 was approximately equal to that of 1939. The total number of wells dillled in the area during the year was 1834, of which 1716 were completed as oil producers, 12 were gas wells and 106 were dry holes. The number of wildcat wells drilled during the year was comparatively small. The drilling of inside locations in proven areas and the drilling of wells for the purpose of extending the productive limits in producing fields constituted the bulk of development during 1940. Gaines County led all other counties in the district in the total number of oil-well completions. The oil production totaled 83,345,381 bbl., the highest figure for any year since proration was begun. The 1940 oil production exceeded the 1939 production by approximately four million barrels. Discoveries While comparatively few new oil-producing areas were discovered during 1940, it appears that the oil production found in simpson lime in the Abell field, pecos County, was an outstanding discovery for the year. This was the second Ordovician discovery in Pecos County. Taubert, McKee & Siemoneit located its discovery well, V. W. Crockett No. 1, set. 4 1/2 H. & T. C. R.R, co, survey in the Imperial area of northwestern Pecos County. The top of pay was encountered at 5270 ft., and the well was bottomed at 5357 ft. in simpson lime, on act. 17, I940. The initial production was 928 bbl. of 43" gravity sweet oil in 11 hr. 23 min., flowing naturally through 2-in. tubing with gas-oil ratio of 783 cu. ft. per barrel. Following the completion of the discovery well, large blocks of land were leased in the area, and several locations were made toward the close of the year. There is every indication that the Abell field will become a major producing field in the West Texas district. There was no pipe-line outlet for the field at the end of the year. Shipley-Silurian field, discovered by the Gulf Oil Corporation, appears to be another major addition to the oil reserves in 1940. The discovery well, Wristen Brothers No. 5, is in sec. 18, block 5, H. & T. C. R.R. Co. survey in Ward County. The well was drilled to a total depth of 9187 ft. and was plugged back to 7075 ft. The Silurian lime section was acidized with 3000 gal., from 6993 to 7075 ft., and on Dec. 5, 1940, the well was completed for initial production of 3040 bbl- of 32.2" gravity oil in 24 hr., flowing through tubing. Todd Deep field, Crockett County, was discovered by the Continental Oil Co. et al. The discovery well, J. S. Todd No. 2, set. 29, block WX1 G.C. & S.F. R.R. Co. survey, was completed on April 3, 1940. The top of pay was encountered at 5623 ft., and the well was bottomed at 5691 ft. for initial production of 1613 bbl. of 40.6' gravity oil flowing naturally through 2-in. tubing. The pay section was found in Strawn lime of Pennsylvanian age. There were six producing wells in the field at the end of the year. This appears to be another major discovery in 1940. There was no pipe-line outlet in the field at the end of the

Jan 1, 1941

By P. P. Gregory

The rate of drilling operations in the West Texas district during 1940 was approximately equal to that of 1939. The total number of wells dillled in the area during the year was 1834, of which 1716 were completed as oil producers, 12 were gas wells and 106 were dry holes. The number of wildcat wells drilled during the year was comparatively small. The drilling of inside locations in proven areas and the drilling of wells for the purpose of extending the productive limits in producing fields constituted the bulk of development during 1940. Gaines County led all other counties in the district in the total number of oil-well completions. The oil production totaled 83,345,381 bbl., the highest figure for any year since proration was begun. The 1940 oil production exceeded the 1939 production by approximately four million barrels. Discoveries While comparatively few new oil-producing areas were discovered during 1940, it appears that the oil production found in simpson lime in the Abell field, pecos County, was an outstanding discovery for the year. This was the second Ordovician discovery in Pecos County. Taubert, McKee & Siemoneit located its discovery well, V. W. Crockett No. 1, set. 4 1/2 H. & T. C. R.R, co, survey in the Imperial area of northwestern Pecos County. The top of pay was encountered at 5270 ft., and the well was bottomed at 5357 ft. in simpson lime, on act. 17, I940. The initial production was 928 bbl. of 43" gravity sweet oil in 11 hr. 23 min., flowing naturally through 2-in. tubing with gas-oil ratio of 783 cu. ft. per barrel. Following the completion of the discovery well, large blocks of land were leased in the area, and several locations were made toward the close of the year. There is every indication that the Abell field will become a major producing field in the West Texas district. There was no pipe-line outlet for the field at the end of the year. Shipley-Silurian field, discovered by the Gulf Oil Corporation, appears to be another major addition to the oil reserves in 1940. The discovery well, Wristen Brothers No. 5, is in sec. 18, block 5, H. & T. C. R.R. Co. survey in Ward County. The well was drilled to a total depth of 9187 ft. and was plugged back to 7075 ft. The Silurian lime section was acidized with 3000 gal., from 6993 to 7075 ft., and on Dec. 5, 1940, the well was completed for initial production of 3040 bbl- of 32.2" gravity oil in 24 hr., flowing through tubing. Todd Deep field, Crockett County, was discovered by the Continental Oil Co. et al. The discovery well, J. S. Todd No. 2, set. 29, block WX1 G.C. & S.F. R.R. Co. survey, was completed on April 3, 1940. The top of pay was encountered at 5623 ft., and the well was bottomed at 5691 ft. for initial production of 1613 bbl. of 40.6' gravity oil flowing naturally through 2-in. tubing. The pay section was found in Strawn lime of Pennsylvanian age. There were six producing wells in the field at the end of the year. This appears to be another major discovery in 1940. There was no pipe-line outlet in the field at the end of the

Jan 1, 1941

By G. H. Clevenger

Discussion of the paper of ALLAN J. CLARK presented at the San Francisco meeting, September 1915, and printed in Bulletin No. 103, July, 1905, pp. 1381 to 1398. G. H. CLEVENGER, Palo Alto, Cal.-Since the precipitation of extremely dilute solutions as regards cyanide presents one of the greatest problems of zinc-dust precipitation, I should like to ask Mr. Clark the minimum concentration in cyanide of the solution from which it is possible to precipitate satisfactorily the gold with zinc dust in Homestake practice. A. J. CLARK.-For a day's work about 0.015 per cent. That is precipitating a very low-grade solution, very low in alkalinity. It requires probably 0.2 lb. of zinc dust to the ton. JOHN A. FULTON, Melones, Cal.-At the Melones mine, we have been working very low-grade rock for a number of years, the process being amalgamation and concentration up to the last year. The value of the ore increased so that we had to supplement the concentration with a sand and slime plant. Classification was a problem, since to install classifiers would mean tearing the mill all to pieces. We are therefore making use of a Wilfley table for this purpose. The amount of wash water is increased and a stream of fresh water is also run into the feed box at the

Jan 12, 1915

The committee appointed .by W. R. Ingalls, president of the Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, to nominate candidates for the' annual gold medal of the Society consisted of E. G. Spilsbury, J. E. Johnson, Jr., and Bradley Stoughton. This committee recommended Mr. Schneider of the Creuzot Works in France for achievements in ferrous metallurgy, which recommendation was approved by the Society. From the report of the committee, the following facts relative to Mr. Schneider's career are taken: Born in 1868, Charles Eugene Schneider undertook the management of the Schneider establishment in 1898, after the death of his father, Henri Schneider. Under his enlightened management, the Schneider establishments have been considerably extended, their activity being not only directed to increasing production, but also to spreading more and more their scope for action in all branches of industry-in metallurgy, mechanical and electrical construction, shipbuilding, artillery and ammunition, and in public works. During the 10 years preceding the war, the number of employees in these establishments, and without counting those of the more numerous subsidiaries, increased approximately 50 per cent. While giving to peace industries all the attention necessitated by the progress in science and the continual improvement in industrial methods and products, Eugene Schneider, with a perspicacity that recent events have justified in a striking manner, especially directed his

Jan 3, 1919