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By George R. Mansfield

Interest in the reserves of phosphate rock in the United States and their proper conservation has recently been aroused by hearings held in different parts of the country by the "Joint Committee to investigate the adequacy and use of phosphate resources of the United States." This committee was appointed within a few days after a Presidential message to Congress on the same subject, dated May 20, 1938, and began to function almost immediately. Hearings were held in Washington, D. C., Pocatello, Ida., Wilson Dam, Ala., Knoxville, Tenn., and Lakeland, Fla. The resulting testimony, when published, comprised a volume of 1182 pages.l At the earlier hearings held in Washington and Idaho the seeming disparity between the great reserves of the West and the smaller reserves in the East led to some suggestions as to the desirability of curtailing or even prohibiting the exportation of phosphate rock so that eastern producers, becoming alarmed, cooperated in making available for the use of the committee information hitherto closely guarded. This information has provided an opportunity for new studies by official agencies, for a restatement of the reserves of Florida and Tennessee, and for some modification of figures for the Western States. The writer, representing the Federal Geological Survey, was given free access to the Florida material and has prepared for publication a report,² some features of which are summarized in this paper. The Tennessee material was studied by Dr. G. I. Whitlatch,³ of the Tennessee Division of Geology. Prof. J. Stewart Williams,* of the Utah State Agricultural College at Logan, has published a recent study of the phosphate resources of Utah and the writer has given some further study to reserves of western phosphate from the viewpoint of including material of lower grade than that hitherto considered. Technologic advances in the phosphate industry must be credited with a large share in the expansion of reserves by making available for

Jan 1, 1942

By A. G. Guy

IN the course of a research on steady-state diffusion it became necessary to make diffusion calculations for a finite solid. This problem was found to be sufficiently different from the corresponding problem for the semi-infinite solid for an entirely new approach to be necessary in obtaining a useful solution. The assumption of an exponential variation of the diffusion coefficient with concentration' was no longer a practical necessity, so that the new solution offered the possibility of handling diffusion in semi-infinite solids for arbitrary variations of the diffusion coefficient with concentration. In discussing the principle on which this method of calculation is based, it is convenient to consider the relatively simple problem of one dimensional diffusion into a matrix that initially contains none of the diffusing substance. The solution of the set- ond Fick Law,?C/?t=D0?2C/?x2, for diffusion into a semi-infinite solid is3 C/C=1-F(x/2vD0t [1] where C is the concentration of the diffusing substance at a depth x cm below the surface after dif- A. G. GUY, Member AIME, and M. GOLOMB are Professor of Metollurgicol Engineering and Professor of Mathematics, respectively, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind., A. S. YUE, formerly with Purdue University, is now with the Research Laboratory, Dow Chemical Co., Midland, Mich. TP 4505E. Manuscript, July 18,1956. fusion has occurred for t seconds; C, is the concentration of the diffusing substance at the surface of the matrix; Do is the diffusion constant, expressed in sq cm per sec; and + represents the Gauss error function. The corresponding solution for diffusion into a finite solid of thickness, 1, is conveniently written for the change in concentration, C+, at a point midway through the matrix and for times, t, great enough for the following equation to be used4 c1/2/C1=(1/2-2/?e-?2D0t/l2) [2] In Eqs. 1 and 2 the diffusion coefficient is represented by the symbol Do (rather than by D) to emphasize that these equations are valid only for constant values of D. To understand how these equations can be modified to take account of actual variations of D, such as that shown in Fig. 1, first consider the fact that for a given time of diffusion theconcentration at a given point is determined, not by the D value alone, but by the ratio x/vD0 in Eq. 1 and by a similar ratio, l2/D0 in Eq. 2. Even though in fact D varies, it is possible to keep this ratio constant by using a special coordinate system, x,, that varies with D in the appropriate manner. The necessary character of this special coordinate system can be easily visualized by imagining that

Jan 1, 1958

By George R. Mansfield

INTEREST in the reserves of phosphate rock in the United States and their proper conservation has recently been aroused by hearings held in different parts of the country by the "Joint Committee to investigate the adequacy and use of phosphate resources of the United States." This committee was appointed within a few days after a Presidential message to Congress on the same subject, dated May 20, 1938, and began to function almost immediately. Hearings were held in Washington, D. C., Pocatello, Ida., Wilson Dam, Ala., Knoxville, Tenn., and Lakeland, Fla. The resulting testimony, when published, comprised a volume of 1182 pages.1 At the earlier hearings held in Washington and Idaho the seeming disparity between the great reserves of the West and the smaller reserves in the East led to some suggestions as to the desirability of curtailing or even prohibiting the exportation of phosphate rock so that eastern producers, becoming alarmed, cooperated in making available for the use of the committee information hitherto closely guarded. This information has provided an opportunity for new studies by official agencies, for a restatement of the reserves of Florida and Tennessee, and for some modification of figures for the Western States. The writer, representing the Federal Geological Survey, was given free access to the Florida material and has prepared for publication a report,2 some features of which are summarized in this paper. The Tennessee material was studied by Dr. G. I. Whitlatch,3 of the Tennessee Division of Geology. Prof. J. Stewart Williams,4 of the Utah State Agricultural College at Logan, has published a recent study of the phosphate resources of Utah and the writer has given some further study to reserves of western phosphate from the viewpoint of including material of lower grade than that hitherto considered. Technologic advances in the phosphate industry must be credited with a large share in the expansion of reserves by making available for

Jan 1, 1940

By Louis V. Bender

THIS paper gives a short review of the installation for and the use of gas, as a. fuel, at the Anaconda Reduction Works of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. Before putting in gas tile fuels used were pulverized coal, lump coal, coke distillate and oil. These fuels are now almost entirely eliminated. For nearly fifty years bituminous coals from Wyoming and Montana fields had been used. These coals were of a good grade, analyzing 11,300 B.t.u. and having an ash content of 12 per cent. When hydro-electric power replaced steam-driven equipment, the coal requirements were reduced; and, on account of improvements in metallurgy and/ or in furnace design, the quantity was lessened. Later, oil and distillate were introduced and used in some of the operations. All of these things tended toward the lessening of the amount of coal used, and had it not been for the increase in the size of the plant, the tonnage used would have been small when the change was made to gas.

Jan 1, 1932

By Walter Miller

PETROLEUM refining, like other industries in the United States in 1940, focused much attention on its duties and opportunities in the field of national defense. In counter-distinction to the situation during the World War; the industry is well constituted as LO existing equipment, processes, and capacity together with planned additions to handle any demands that may be made upon it by the defense program needs. Evident throughout was the growing sense of ability to manipulate oil molecules for the production of materials not hitherto considered as being available commercially from petroleum The development and application of catalytically-induced reactions on a broad front is one of the distinguishing characteristics of refining progress during the year.

Jan 1, 1941

By WILLIAM BOWIE

THE development of the isostatic idea during the last century would make an interesting paper in itself. But the various steps in the development have been covered in a number of papers and books which are readily available. Therefore this short paper should not give space to. the historical phases of the subject. Isostasy is really an old idea, but it is only in the last few decades that it has taken on any great prominence or importance in the study of earth phenomena. It is really remarkable how closely Dutton' sensed the isostatic principle 40 years or more ago. His general principles of isostasy as outlined by him have stood the test of time and fit in closely with the general ideas held today. It would seem, however, that some of his views with regard to the application of isostasy to geological processes must be modified or abandoned.

Jan 1, 1930

The following paper, submitted by the Russian petroleum authorities, was secured through the courtesy of G. V. Ackerman, Vice President of Amtorg Trading Corporation, and N. V. Vannikoff, Representative in the U.S.A. of the United Oil and Gas Industries of the U.S.S.R. It gives an excellent view of the Russian petroleum industry as seen through Russian eyes. Noteworthy is the tremendous area over which the Russians are searching for petroleum, for this paper refers to such far-flung areas as the Arctic Tamir Peninsula, Kamchatka and Sakhalin on the Pacific, Lake Baikal in Central Siberia, the great new discovery at Neftadag in the plains of West Turkestan, and the oil of the Ferghana oasis, where the derricks look out over to the mosques of Kokand. Of interest also is the new pipe line to supply the industrial centers of Ukraine grouped around the great hydroelectric plant built at Dneprotroy on the falls of the Dnieper. The technical achievements have been noteworthy and we must pause to consider the scope of the undertakings being carried forward. Russia is at the worst a good second to the United States in petroleum reserves and for a long time to come will be a most important factor in the petroleum markets of the world. Her story should be of interest to everyone in the industry. The First Five Year Plan The first Five Year Plan, covering the period 1928-29 to 1932, accomplished the task of transforming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics from an agricultural, backward land into a powerful independent industrial country, with an advanced technological foundation of its own for finally achieving the social reconstruction of the entire national economy. Along with the gigantic forward 'strides in industry and transportation, radical changes took place in agriculture. The creation of more than 5000 great state farms and of more than 200,000 collective farms serviced by a widespread network of machine-tractor stations has brought the U.S.S.R. to the fore as the largest agricultural country in the world. Imports of tractors and other agricultural machinery in the initial years of the Five Year Plan and the intensive output of this equipment by the great plants of the U.S.S.R. in the latter years of the plan have brought about the mechanization of agriculture in the Soviet Union. This year 250,000 tractors and 30,000 combines will operate in the fields

Jan 1, 1934

By John T. Thorndyke

MOST important of the naturalcalcium silicates is the meta¬silicate, CaSi03, known as wollastonite, after W. H. Wollaston. A large deposit of this mineral was dis¬covered some seven years ago near Code Siding, Rademacher mining dis¬trict, Kern County, Calif., the deposit being some 7500 ft. long and of an average width of 300 ft. It consists of a series of small domes striking north¬erly and southerly and with a dip of 81 ° to the south. This deposit was opened up by a series of small quarries showing a potential tonnage of 12,000,¬000 tons, allowing of cheap mining and transportation, the Southern Pa¬cific R.R. spur track being one mile north of the workings. Numerous sam¬ples taken from different points on the deposit, tested by Mr. Brinker, of the California Testing Laboratories, Los Angeles, showed an average as fol¬lows: Per Cent Silica (SiO2) 47.12 Lime (CaO) 41.72 Magnesia (MgO) 2.72 Alkalies (R,0) Trace Iron (Fe.,O,) 1.60 whereas the theoretical composition of of wollastonite, as given by William Shirley Bayley, is as follows: Silica 51.75 Lime 45.25 The tonnage and purity of this de¬posit led to investigations into its com¬mercial development. Early work es¬tablished the fact that wollastonite was ideal for the manufacture of a tough, almost unbreakable, glass similar to Pyrex. It also established the fact that wollastonite was particularly adapted for use in the manufacture of mineral wool, towards which further research was then directed. Briefly, the prin¬cipal advantages were the substantially unvarying chemical composition of the naturally occurring mineral and its characteristic of being relatively flexi¬ble and highly resilient when fused into a glass. A mineral wool produced therefrom is thus not only of highly uniform composition and color but is most desirable because of the high mechanical strength and length of the individual fibers constituting the wool. It is well known that mineral wool may be prepared by melting a suitable charge of raw material and then intro¬ducing a stream of a suitable fluid, such as air or steam, into a stream of the molten raw material. By this means the molten material is blown into threads or fibers, which are collected in a suitable chamber similar to a tun¬nel, from which they are removed from time to time or continuously. Com¬mercial manufacture of mineral wool has been carried on for only about 50 years, but volcanoes, specifically Kilauea in the Hawaiian Islands, have

Jan 1, 1936

By Frank Rieber

EVERYONE is familiar with the story of the poor Indian and his leaking tepee. He couldn't repair the leak while it was raining, naturally. And when it wasn't raining, where was the incentive? Even if this traditional Indian was apochryphal, his counterparts are certainly alive today, and operating on a world-wide scale. - A recent issue of the Wall Street Journal, for example, carried an impassioned letter from an old cocoa planter, who wants the world to know why the price of cocoa has gone skyrocketing. For years, he says, British and American interests have bought cocoa at the cheapest possible price and, incidentally, from growers willing to sell at that price. Between them, they didn't put enough money back into the business, either to fight disease in the cocoa groves or to plant new cocoa trees. Until new trees are planted and come into bearing, we will be paying exorbitant prices for our cocoa, and getting less of it.

Jan 1, 1948

By Sherwin F. Kelly

THOUGH the Geophysics Commit- tee limited itself to two sessions this year, both of them marked by a high percentage of absentee authors, even this situation failed to dampen the and or of the ebullient geophysicists, who bandied no small amount of good- humoredlv barbed discussion. Hans Lundherg offered some constructive criticism of last year's report by the Geophysics Education Commit- tee, making a plea for more training in field techniques and less insistence on rigorous theoretical training. Carl Heiland pointed out the necessity of making geophysics and geology courses more attractive in order to draw more students into these fields. Exception was taken to this line of reasoning by Father Macelwane and Sherwin F. Kelly who emphasized the necessity for sound basic training if competent geophysicists were to be turned out. This discussion developed apropos of the report of the Geophysics Education Committee, which had been postponed from the Education Division meetings, but was not read as it was available in mimeographed form. Except for this diversion the morning program fol-

Jan 1, 1944

By C. E. Wood, T. L. Joseph

This paper is a brief report of experimental work undertaken determine whether barium oxide in any quantity increases the desulfur ing action of blast-furnace slags. Industrial furnace operation wi slag containing small quantities of barium oxide, referred to later, intc ested S. A. Sanford of the Commercial Chemical Co., Youngstown, Oh to conduct experiments to furnish comparative results on desulfurizati with normal slag and slag containing small quantities of barium oxic The U. S. Bureau of Mines agreed to assist on the problem because the possible saving in fuel if the desulfurizing action of blast-furna slag can be substantially increased, also because the experiments woi yield new information on sulfur elimination in general, a matter economic importance in furnace practice. A more complete and func mental study of desulfurization of iron by slag is in progress. Distribution of Sulfur iN the Blast Furnace More than 90 per cent. of the total sulfur entering the blast furnz is in the coke. Sponge iron formed by reduction of iron oxides absor part of the sulfur as ferrous sulfide. Kinney's examination of sample taken from various levels of a 3004,011 furnace, shows that the me continues to take up sulfur until it reaches a level near the tuyer Desulfurization must therefore take place as the metal falls through t slag and as the slag and metal exist as layers in the crucible. The relative amounts of sulfur removed while the metal falls throu the slag and while the slag and metal exist as layers in t crucible are not definitely known. Preliminary experiments by t

Jan 1, 1929

By Fred E. Carter

AT first sight, the platinum group of metals seem of little import to we, the people," although actually the life of the common man is much influenced by them; this influence is usually indirect, hence his lack of knowledge and interest. He generally associates platinum with high-class jewelry and lets it go at that. Were 11e to go deeper, he would find that platinum metals play their part in his food supply, his clothing. his health, his transportation, his home. And the technical man is in general only slightly better informed, for he usually does not realize how necessary platinum metals are in the manufacture of the many construction materials and chemical products with which he is acquainted. Certainly, our daily lives would be profoundly affected if platinum were suddenly to become unavailable.

Jan 1, 1944

By M. J. Pool, P. J. Spencer

Using liquid tin as the solvent metal, the heats of solution of silver and gold in dilute Ag-Au-Sn alloys have been determined at 723°K by solution calorimetry. From the values obtained, the various enthalpy interaction coefficients in the liquid solutions have been calculated. The self-interaction coefficients Au and Ag values of 2413 and -6322 cal per g-atom in binary Au-Sn and Ag-Sn alloys, respectively. For an alloy containing 0.04 mole fraction Ag, Au is equal to 2443 cal per g-atom, and in an alloy containing 0.04 mole fraction Au, Ag has a value of —8883 cal per g-atom. Ag Au has been determined as —2650 cal per g-atom. ADDITION of a second solute to a dilute binary alloy may cause striking changes in the thermodynamic characteristics of the alloy. As yet, such influences cannot be reliably predicted and it is only by accumulation and critical assessment of data that definite patterns can be established. Solute interactions in dilute solutions were first treated mathematically by Wagner,1 who derived expressions for the Gibbs energy interaction coefficients. For an alloy consisting of. two dilute solutes, i and j, in a solvent s, these coefficients are given by: where yi is the activity coefficient of component i and x represents the mole fraction of solute or solvent. Other interaction coefficients have since been established in terms of the various partial molar thermodynamic properties of an alloy; the definitions of these are summarized in a recent paper by Lupis and Elliott.2 Mathematical and experimental studies of such coefficients have received much attention recently, providing a very useful theoretical background to an understanding of the nature of solute interactions taking place in dilute solutions. One of the definitions to arise from such work has been the extension of Wagner's treatment by Lupis and Elliott4 to include an enthalpy interaction coefficient, defined as. where ?Hi is the relative partial molar enthalpy of component i. ?Hi is related to the relative partial molar enthalpy at infinite dilution, ?Hio, and to the enthalpy interaction coefficients by the expression: Values of ?Hi can often be obtained with a high degree of accuracy by calorimetry, and, if the composition of the alloy is carefully controlled by making calculated solute additions throughout a series of measurements, application of Eq. [2] will enable reliable enthalpy interaction coefficients to be determined. Partial heats of solution must be investigated as a function of solute concentrations down to xi = 0, and, since ? values are obtained from the slope of mi plotted against x, great care must be taken to obtain precise data. The data for binary systems which are presently available often require extrapolation of ?Hi values from compositions as great as xi = 0.05 or even 0.1 to obtain limiting heats of solution. Reliable enthalpy interaction coefficients are thus impossible to obtain from published data for most of the alloy systems already investigated. The aim of the present work was to determine values of Au, Ag, Ag, and Au in the limit xsn -1 for the relatively simple Ag-Au-Sn system and from these results to gain some insight into the possible influence

Jan 1, 1969

By Thomas V. Falkie, Robert Stefanko

Recently The Wall Street Journal featured a series of articles titled "The Dirty Work-Brutal, Mindless Labor Remains a Daily Reality for Millions in The US.-Mining Coal, Shoveling Slag, Gutting Hogs Pays Bills But Can Drain Spirit, Hope." The article was devoted to describing how tough and dangerous is mining (and some other jobs) and how rough life is for miners and their families. Similarly during the past few years some psychiatrists and sociologists have devoted increased attention to the attitudes and life styles of miners. Unfortunately most of their approaches have been neither scientific nor objective, and very little good clinical research has been done on the subject.

Jan 1, 1971

By H. W. Gillett

WE hear much in these days about "tailor-made" steels. Farseeing executives have sensed the demand for metals of improved and special properties, with those properties deliberately built into the steel in order to fit it for a particular use or group of uses. They have set their metal-lurgists at work to produce what the customer needs, even though the tonnage required may not, at least at first, be great. As the metal-lurgists bring out such metals, the products are advertised and the customer becomes increasingly conscious that he no longer has to take "ready-made" steel as the only thing available, whether it fits his needs or not, but that there are plenty of steelmakers ready to serve his specific needs with a tailor-made steel. Of course this is nothing new in the realm of rather highly alloyed steels to be heat-treated. The automotive industry demanded and got such steels long ago. Indeed, one could not design a modern car using only non-heat-treated carbon steel, since an engine of present horsepower would be so heavy that the gasoline required merely to lug the engine itself around would be absurd. Many different alloy steels and many different heat-treatments are required to produce the fine gradations of properties and the strength per unit weight that are needed in each particular part. Aircraft designers, of course, count a high strength-weight ratio in the materials used as Article I in their constitution, and they too, and in outstanding degree, require tailor-made alloys. Aircraft and automobiles may be considered as the tail coats and Tuxes of the metallurgical tailors. Nowadays there is also a demand for business suits, in the form of high-strength alloys to reduce dead load and so increase payload, all through the transportation industry. We hear most about weight-saving design and materials in respect to the railroads, with the spectacular new high-speed passenger trains and the prosaic freight car. The latter sounds especially sweet to steel-mill ears, because it means tonnage. While most of us think of these developments, and of the engineering acceptance of high-strength materials as "new," the fundamentals are of almost hoary antiquity. It is the widespread availability of a variety of materials and their general acceptance that are new.

Jan 1, 1936

By P. H. Dudley

When we see the magnificent passenger-trains of from 8 to 12 coaches, drawn by locomotives weighing from 100 to 110 tons, at speeds of from 50 to 60 miles per hour between terminals, to make a schedule of 45 miles per hour, and freighttrains of from 50 to 75 cars of 60,000 pounds capacity, drawn by one locomotive, it is hard to realize that it lacks a few months of fifteen years since my pioneer 5-inch 80-pound rail for the United States was laid by the New York Central aid Hudson River Railroad Co., in July, 1884, on the Harlem line. Shorter passenger-trains, of from 4 to 5 coaches, are run much faster, notably the Empire State Express, the schedule of which for the 440 miles between New York and Buffalo requires 53.3 miles per hour, calling for a running-speed, for much of the time, of from 65 to 75 miles per hour, while higher speeds are very common. On other railroads laid with my 5 1/8-inch 80-pound rail, speeds of from 60 to 75 miles per hour obtain in daily practice. On many of the important railroads east of the Mississippi high speeds of from 60 to 70 miles per hour are part of the daily service. So many instances of speeds of 90, and even 100, miles per hour have been recorded that they must be considered as likely to occur on important lines, and provision must be made for them in the track. Solid mail-trains of from 6 to 8 cars are run from New York to Chicago, 1000 miles, in twenty-four hours; and, commeneing with the present year, shorter trains are running from Chicago to San Francisco, 2000 miles, in three and one-half days. In the freight-service equally important progress has been

Jan 1, 1900

As 1970 develops and industrial minerals stand at a crucial point in their progress, research and development programs appear to be the key needed to open up new uses for each mineral's future growth. Radically new processes are needed for making a host of new synthetic products from mineral raw materials which will more nearly meet the demanding specifications required for high performance in space, nuclear and defense applications. Consumer applications for high temperature environments will be needed and are important for continuing the nations economic mineral position. In addition, an acute materials problem limits the effectiveness of some of the newer concepts for controlling ail pollution. What is needed then, according to a report printed by the National Academy of Sciences, is the carefully planned development of a limited number of major centers at universities to provide for both basic research and training of personnel; the nurturing of interdisciplinary mechanisms for research and problem solving within these centers; the achieving of a better balance between physics and chemistry within research, emphasizing the chemical aspects of the material sciences; and the enhancement of a broader professional identity by unifying the various disciplines involved into a possible federation of existing societies which have an interest in the problems. [EE] presents its 1969 annual industrial minerals review, where individual authors evaluate the status of each industrial mineral and recount the major developments which occurred during the year.

Jan 1, 1970

By Lester Uren

WITH the depletion of our older, and relatively shallow, oilfields and the necessity for securing new production from deeper horizons, much attention is being given to the improvement of oil-well pumps in order that they may function satisfactorily under the more difficult conditions imposed by increased depth. Until recently, practically all of the world's petroleum was secured from wells less than 3000 ft. deep, whereas horizons are now being explored to depths of from 5000 to 7000 ft. in some of the more prolific fields, and it seems probable that the greater part of the future supply must come from depths in excess of 3000 ft. While much of the early production in a new field is obtained by natural-flow methods, when the stimulus of high gas pressure fails, recourse must be had to some method of pumping. The perfection of a pump capable of economically and efficiently lifting oil from depths ranging from 3000 to 7000 ft. is therefore a matter of prime importance to the oil-producing industry. This paper is offered as an estimate of the present state of development of the oil-well plunger pump and as a review of the general principles involved in its operation in deep-well pumping. A design for a new type of oil-well pump embodying several novel features, is also described.

Jan 9, 1925

By Sherwin F. Kelly

FRONTIERS of geological knowledge retreated further this past year before an ever-widening geophysical attack, as governments and endowed institutions continued to take an increasing practical interest in the geophysical line of approach to the study of earth phenomena. A year ago I opened this annual review with a brief account of the efforts to discover what formations lie concealed beneath the deep sediments which form the superficial portions of the Continental Shelf off the eastern United States. That work was but the beginning, and 1938 saw its continuation and expansion. With the assistance of a Guggenheim Fellowship, Maurice Ewing pushed his researches in the development of instruments and techniques for deep-sea seismic refraction studies. Ewing's early refraction profile from the Virginia Capes to the edge of the Continental Shelf has been followed by a similar traverse in Great Britain from the coast of Cornwall to the edge of the Continental Shelf southwest of England. This showed that the thickness of the sedimentary mantle and the rates of slope of the basement surfaces there are comparable to those in the Virginia Cape district.

Jan 1, 1939

By T. Egleston

The direct process for the manufacture of iron which is principally used in the United States, in New York and New Jersey, is called the Jersey forge, the Champlain forge, the Catalan forge, the Bloomary forge or fire, and sometimes a Forge fire. Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, who has discussed the process as applied to the beach sands of Canada as well as to ores, in the Report of the Canadian Geological Survey for 1867-69, has shown that the name of Catalan forge is incorrect, as this process in no way resembles the Catalan, but is really the old German b1oomary modified by long use in this country. Dr. Hunt gives the probable history of the introduction of the process into the United States, and a series of historic citations of great interest relating to it. Notwithstanding the improvements which have been made in the constrnction of the furnace and its greater output, the process to-day, in all its essential features, is carried out as Karsten described it. It should now be known as the American Bloomary. The name of Jersey or Champlain forge or fire is not sufficiently distinctive. The name of Bloomary, by which the process is usually distinguished, is objectionable, not because it is incorrect but because it is indefinite, as the Knobbling fires, which are a very slight modification of the Walloon process, for making blooms either from pig iron or by sinking scrap, are also called Bloomaries, and although Knobbling fires are only used in a few localities where charcoal pig is made, and special grades of charcoal-refined blooms are required, one does not, without an explanation, know whether the blooms are being manufactured from ore or pig. The name Forge fire is equally indefinite, as it might just as well apply to any of the five direct methods of making blooms which have been in use in Europe, but which have now mostly gone out of date. The name of American Bloomary, however, is the one which most completely describes it, and is the one least open to objection. The names of' German, Jersey, and Champlain bloomary are too local, and these adjectives are thought unnecessary by those who use the process, and we shall not therefore describe it under any of these names, but as the American Bloomary process.

Jan 1, 1880