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CONTENTS PAGE DANIELS, SAMUEL, LYON, A. J., and JOHNSON,. J. B.-Casting and Heat Treatment of Some Aluminum Copper-magnesium Alloys 1 ELLIS, O. W. and SCHEMNITZ, D. A.-Experiments on the Heat Treatment of Alpha-beta Brass : 4 ENOS, GEORGE M. and ANDERSON, ROBERT J.-Coatings. Formed on Corroded Metals and Alloys 5 COMSTOCK, GEORGE F.-Notes on the Hardness of Heat-treated Aluminum Bronze 6 Casting and Heat Treatment of Some Aluminum Copper-magnesium Alloys Discussion of the paper of SAMUEL DANIELS, A. J. LYON, and J. B. JOHNSON, presented at the Milwaukee Meeting, October, 1924, and issued, as Paper No. 1350-N, with MINING AND METALLURGY, July, 1924. D. HANSON and M. L. V. GAYLER, Teddington, England (written discussion).-At the National Physical Laboratory, the writers have made a number of researches on the relation between the constitution and mechanical properties of aluminum alloys of various types; the results obtained were in good general agreement with those of the authors. The writers, however, did not think that increasing the copper content of sand-cast low-copper duralumin to 4 per cent. necessarily caused a drop in the elongation to 1.5 per cent., as stated on page 9. In the case of sand-cast copper-aluminium alloys they had obtained much greater elongation, in some cases as great as 13 per cent. in heat-treated castings. For example, in a sand casting containing 3.5 per cent. of copper, a strength of 12 tons per square inch and an elongation of 13 per cent. were obtained; in a casting containing 4.5 per cent. copper, a tensile strength of 13 tons, and an elongation of 9 per cent. were obtained. These values were the maximum; the elongation varied considerably, being as low as 5 per cent. in some cases. In the writers' opinion, such variations are due more to unsoundness in the sand casting than to any other cause.

Jan 1, 1925

L. S. Austin, Denver, Colo. (communication to the Secretary) : Mr Hartman says (p. 4 of the pamphlet) that the penetration of air into the crucible of the blast-furnace " is, of course, a function of the diameter of the nozzle." To this I would emphatically take exception. Fig. 1 represents a vertical ideal section of tuyere, cruciblewalls and charge, immediately at the tuyere, in which the currents of air are represented, both in quantity and in direction, by the tortuous black-lines emanating from the nozzle-opening and passing through channels of the least resistance. As an electric current, flowing by various conductors to a common point, is carried in quantity inversely as the resistance of those conductors, so here the air ramifies through the most open cavities or channels, relatively little of it passing where the resistance due to fine materials is great. This figure represents the course of currents in the vertical plane only. As a matter of fact, they pass away in every plane, as opportunity offers. The effect of blocking or decreasing the area of the nozzleopening would certainly only decrease the quantity of air entering by that particular tuyere, without assisting penetration. The large channels (b, b, Fig. 1, for example) would still carry the larger part of the air, while again the smaller channels (a, a, a) would continue small and take no larger percentage of the air than before. These channels momentarily change, however, with the slow descent of the coke. Further on (p. 5), Mr. Hartman describes the dispersive effect of a single lump of fuel. He has only to conceive the entire spaces before the tuyere-nozzles as filled with such lumps, in order to parallel the condition of affairs I have just explained. It is where the large pieces of the charge come down, that the mass is the most open, and the blast passes most freely. On the other hand, wherever the fine ore collects combustion proceeds slowly, because of the smaller supply of air. The

Jan 1, 1899

By L. W. Bahney

The photograph, Fig. 1, shows the apparatus a little less than half size, consisting of a filtering-flask fitted with rubber stopper through which passes a bent glass tube, and an extraction-thimble fitted with rubber stopper through which passes a glass tube of 0.25-inch bore. Both tubes are connected by a short piece of rubber tubing. A section of a thimble is shown in the photograph ; the tube extends to within & in. of the tapered end. The object of using the thimble is to remove the acid from the beaker after all the copper has been precipitated. Time is saved, the copper is not exposed to the acid alone, and there are none of the losses attending ordinary filtration. I have accomplished these results by means of a piece of perforated platinum fastened in the end of a (0.25-in. bore glass tube and a filter-mat of asbestos, but after my supply of proper length fiber became exhausted I could not replenish it even after purchasing 14 lots from four different dealers. The above apparatus may be used to remove at least seven-eighths of a supernatant liquid from a settled precipitate without disturbing the latter. The application of the thimble is best shown by partly outlining the assay for copper, as follows: Dilute the acid solution of copper and other sulphates to 150 cc. in a 200-cc. Jena beaker, place on a hot plate, add 2 drops of concentrated HCl, then place a strip of aluminum in the beaker (this may be bent or straight, as desired). Connect the apparatus, as shown in Pig. 1, with a filter-pump having a strong suction. When the copper is precipitated, remove the beaker from the hot plate and insert the extraction-thimble alongside the strip of aluminum. The acid solution will be drawn through the porous tube. Wash the upper end of the aluminum strip with a jet of hot water, wash down the sides of

Jan 1, 1913

By G. A. Guess

THIS investigation was started with the idea of determining whether copper-nickel mattes might not have a lower flowing temperature than copper mattes, and thus perhaps aid in accounting for the difficulty so far experienced in attempts at pyritically smelting copper-nickel ores. We have used the term flowing temperature to avoid confusion with the usual melting temperature. The idea at first was that there might be a greater viscosity range in the one matte than in the other. In the early experiments it was in our minds to determine the relative fluidity of the mattes at a given temperature. Looking to this end we tried pouring equal quantities of matte at the same temperature down an inclined graphite slab, and comparing the distances traveled. Results from such experiments were not satisfactory. We next tried pouring equal quantities at the same temperature through a drilled hole in an Acheson graphite crucible, timing the flow with a stop watch, the whole operation being carried out in the muffle. The flowing temperatures of the mattes tried in this way appeared to be about the same, and there was no marked difference in their fluidity when well fused. Oxidation gave some trouble. These experiments finally led to the adoption of the following apparatus which we thought at the time was wholly original with us, but which we have since found was described by W. McA. Johnson.' The tray used was a slab of graphite 8 in. long, 2 in. wide and ¼ in. thick. It had six holes, into each of which sat a cup of Acheson graphite. Centrally in the bottom of each cup was a vertically drilled hole 3/16 in. in diameter and ½ in. long. The mattes to be tested were put into the cups, in a solid piece. The cups were covered with inverted Battersea "A" cups. The tray was put into the muffle of a gas-fired furnace. Supports on .each end held the tray about 2 in. from the floor of the muffle. Udder

Jan 6, 1916

By Lyndon L. Foley

The proper spacing of oil wells is a problem of vital importance to the oil industry. Conservation demands a maximum recovery, while economic considerations attach primary importance to profitable extraction of oil. Formulas have been evolved,1-4 which attempt to solve the spacing problem mathematically, using reservoir characteristics as factors. Comparisons have been made of fields producing from supposedly similar sands, which have been drilled to varying densitiesl5,6 and also of different leases in the same field. 5-8 Intermediate wells have been drilled in old, depleted fields to test the efficiency of drainage by the original operation.9-11 Intermediate wells have been drilled also to obtain cores of the depleted sand for analysis, from which to learn the degree of efficiency of extraction. The problem is being attacked by many students, and along several different lines. Unfortunately, the fields now depleted were produced generally without restriction, and conclusions drawn from them may not apply to fields operated under restricted production. Reservoir conditions in a restricted field, especially reservoir pressures and pressure gradients within the reservoir, are quite different from those in a field produced to capacity. Many people have held the idea that the closer the spacing, the greater the recovery. This general statement is not always true, as other factors than well spacing enter into the recovery problem. Cutler,5 who has been quoted frequently by advocates of close spacing, limited his conclusions to gas-drive fields, and to the particular fields and spac-ings that he investigated. Hill and Sutton7 analyzed four tracts in the Powell field; the tract most closely drilled had the third largest recovery per acre-foot, and the tract with the widest spacing had the second largest recovery per acre-foot. A search of the references to well spacing in the publications of the U. S. Bureau of Mines5,13-19 discloses repeated condemnations of the wastefulness of the practice of town-lot drilling.

Jan 1, 1938

By W. H. Ode, W. A. Selvig

By plotting fixed carbon against British thermal units of coals free from mineral matter, and ranging in rank from anthracite to lignite, it is found that the coals of higher rank, from anthracite to the higher rank of the high-volatile bituminous coals, inclusive, can be separated into groups according to their degree of metamorphism by reference to their fixed carbon. Such charts show also that the coals lower in rank can be best separated into groups with respect to B.t.u., especially when plotted on the moist basis, that is, coal containing its natural bed moisture. A tentative scheme for coal classification was presented at the October, 1932, meeting of the Technical Committee on Scientific Classification, of the American Standards Association Sectional Committee on Coal Classification. This scheme was sponsored by Subcommittee IV on Tentative Classification of Coals, under the chairmanship of W. T. Thom, Jr. It proposed the grouping of coals according to rank by reference to fixed carbon and B.t.u., on the basis of coal containing its natural bed moisture but free from mineral matter. This scheme proposed classifying coals into four broad classes: (1) anthracitic, (2) bituminous, (3) subbituminous, (4) lignitic. The anthracitic class was divided into three groups designated as meta-anthracite, normal anthracite, and semianthracite. The bituminous class also was divided into three groups, low volatile, medium volatile, and high volatile. The high-volatile group was further subdivided into four subgroups according to moisture content, as fo1lows: (1) less than 5 per cent, (2) 5 to 10 per cent, (3) 10 to 15 per cent, and (4) 15 per cent and more. The subbituminous class was divided into two groups, group 1 including subbituminous coals having calorific values of 10,500 B.t.u. or more, and group 2 including those with less than 10,500 B.t.u. The lignitic class of coal was divided into two groups both below 8,000 B.t.u., the one group consisting of consolidated and the other of unconsolidated

Jan 1, 1934

By Olav Dalen

A HUNDRED years have passed since Wöhler made the first few particles of aluminum by decompos-ing aluminum chloride with potassium. In 1854 Deville used sodium to decompose the double chloride of aluminum and sodium, but even various subsequent improvements of the process, especially by Castner, did not sufficiently decrease the cost of the metal to bring it into general use. In 1862 Monckton proposed to reduce Al O? with carbon by the aid of the electric current, but the efforts of the Cowles brothers to do so were not successful and in 1884 they turned to making aluminum alloys by electrolysis. At about the same time Hall in America and Heroult in France success-fully worked out the technology of dissolving A12O3 in fused cryolite and electrolyzing the bath. It is hard to realize that forty years ago the annual production of aluminum was only 30 to 40 tons per year and the price of the metal thirty times what it is today. Great strides in decreasing the cost of production, improving the quality of the metal, and increasing the output have been made in the lifetime of middle-aged men. The large consumption of electrical energy in the form of direct current makes it necessary to locate aluminum-producing plants near waterfalls, to avoid transmission losses. Norway with its abundant water-falls is therefore a logical place for the development of aluminum production, even though it is necessary to import the bauxite, which is the raw material of the process. It was foreigners who first started the aluminum in-dustry of Norway and the first two plants were built by the British Aluminium Co. in 1906 to 1908; one at Vigeland near Kristiansand, and the other at Stavan-gerfjord in Nordfjord. These two plants are still oper-ating and producing over 3000 tons a year. When the plant at Vigeland is enlarged the production of the company will be more than 4000 tons a year.

Jan 11, 1927

By W. L. Phillips

The recovery properties of compression-deformed lithium fluoride single crystals were investigated as a function of prior strain, annealing time, and annealing temperature. The recovery process was studied by observation of etch pits and birefringence stress patterns. The recovery process involved first a redistribution of the dislocations and then a decrease in their number. Only by annealing at high temperatures after small strains (<0.02 in. per in.) was it possible to obtain complete recovery of mechanical properties. LITHIUM fluoride affords unusual opportunities to extend the knowledge of deformation mechanisms of nonmetallic crystalline compounds. Single crystals of high purity are readily available. These crystals deform by slip on the (110) <110> system.&apos; Unlike those of several other ionic crystals, the stress-strain curves of annealed lithium fluoride are reproducible.2 Dislocations generated in the crystals during deformation can be revealed by etch pits.3 This fact makes possible more detailed studies of mechanisms than is usually the case with metals. Also, because lithium fluoride is transparent, it is possible to follow the recovery process with birefringence stress patterns. It has been shown that with metals an increase in temperature increases the amount of recovery for a given time, and the amount of recovery increases with increasing time at the same temperature.4-6 The yield stress has also been shown to be dependent on the rate of cooling after annealing.&apos; Annealing germanium, a covalent-bond material, at high temperatures after deformation redistributes the dislocations and reduces their number. The purpose of the present paper is to extend the knowledge of recovery properties to an ionic crystal, lithium fluoride. The effect of strain, time, and temperature of recovery on the stress-strain curve was investigated. The recovery process was followed by observations of etch pits and birefringence stress patterns. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Specimens measuring approximately 0.10 by 0,10 by 0.30 in. long were cleaved from a single bulk

Jan 1, 1961

By Frank A. Linforth

The object of this paper is to present a brief outline of the methods of geologic mapping employed in the Geological Department of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., at Butte, and to show by means of a few typical examples the practical nature of the results obtained. The extremely complicated geological conditions early encountered in Butte mining led mine operators to realize the necessity of accurate detailed geologic mapping m an aid to successful development of the ore bodies. The organization of the Anaconda Geological Department was undertaken in 1900 by H. V. Winchell, who, in conjunction with D. W. Brunton, worked out the essential methods of procedure which are, in the main, followed at the present time. Since the year 1906 the geologic work has been under the direction of Reno H. Sales, and in some respects the scope of the work has been slightly enlarged. An excellent article describing the general equipment of the geological department was presented by D. W. Brunton at the British Columbia meeting of the Institute in 1905.&apos; His idea, that data collected underground and recorded should be put to practical use and not remain a mere " inventory of the company&apos;s underground possessions," is the keynote to the success of applied geology in Butte. The geologic notes are taken as soon as possible after the ground is broken so that any mistake in the mining may be corrected at once, or any particularly advantageous procedure may be suggested before any useless work is done. Taking the notes underground is a comparatively simple matter, but a few necessary precautions may be pointed out. The essential to success is that the notes shall show exactly what geological facts are disclosed. The observer must discriminate carefully between important and unimportant exposures in making the record, especially as regards the relation between veins and stringers, between faults and minor slips, or between the characteristics of veins of different ages. A simple color scheme has been adopted for making this record. Red pencils are used to indicate

Jan 1, 1914

By Lawrence W. Aldrich

At the San Francisco meeting of the Institute last year, I presented, through the courtesy of Dr. James Douglas, some results of experiments on the roasting and leaching of concentrator tailings. After it became apparent that flotation rather than leaching was clearly the better method of handling the particular problem under consideration, before dismantling the experimental equipment, some data were secured on roasting and leaching the concentrate itself in competition with smelting. Some of the results obtained are given in the following paper and they are of particular interest at this time in view of the large quantities of flotation concentrates with their somewhat difficult smelting characteristics now being produced. A complete wet processt consists of roasting and leaching the calcines in dilute sulphuric acid produced from the roaster gases, roasting the residue with salt and leaching with dilute tower liquors (the well-known Longmaid-Henderson process) and recovering the copper, silver and gold by cementation or electrolysis or a combination of both. It is evident, however, that the residue from the first leaching, carrying about 20 per cent. of the copper and all of the silver and gold, can be smelted if preferable. In considering the application of the scheme to individual cases, it must be remembered that freight plays a large part in any reduction process wherein smelting is not conducted at the mouth of the mine, and that it is not practicable today to build small smelting plants for individual operations, The experiments may be grouped under four main heads: Roasting, leaching, chloridizing residue, and recovery of copper from solutions. The products of two concentrators were used: The Nacozari concentrates were the product of a large modern mill not using flotation, the copper mineral being largely chalcopyrite; and the Tyrone concentrates, the product of an experimental mill including flotation, the copper mineral being chiefly chalcocite. Typical analyses are given in Table 1. Fig. 1 shows screen analyses of calcines obtained by dead roasting the

Jan 1, 1917

By John Chipman

HE lecture on &apos;Thermodynamic Properties of Blast Furnace Slagso prepared in 1959 and published two years later required revision in one particular before it appeared in print. The activity of SiO, was deter mined through studies of the equilibrium: SiO, (in slag) 2C (graphite) = (in Fe) 2C0 (1 atm) The ratio for each experimental temperature was found from the heat of formation of cris-tobalite, the entropies and heat capacities of the re-actants, by virtue of the third law of thermodynamics. Discrepancies between several kinds of data led to investigations regarding other equilibria involving SiO, on the suspicion that there might be an error in the third-law value of its free energy. In particular the equilibrium: was restudied by Kay and Taylor who Confirmed the earlier results of Baird and Tayloron which their SiO, activities depended. The free energy of Sic was also rechecked4 independently. These and other equilibrium measurements led to the conclusion6 that the free energy of SiO, at high temperatures is in error and requires a correction of about -5 kcal. The exact source of the error is uncertain; it could lie either in the entropy of SiO, or in its heat of formation, but it more probably lies in the latter. Adjustment of this free energy lowers the ratio by a factor of approximately 4. Accordingly it will be necessary to multiply by this factor all of the SiO, activities determined by this method.&apos;,B Referring to the lecture cited, this correction should be applied in Figs. 8, 9, 10, 19, and 20. It applies also to the experimental data of Fig. 13, bringing these as well as those on the ternary system into good agreement with the work of Taylor and associates. At the same time it eliminates the discrepancy shown in Fig. 11, lowering both lines until the upper

Jan 1, 1962

By R. M. Hudson

A study has been made of the decarburization of low-carbon sheet steels at temperatures from 1100" to 1475°F in mixtures containing hydrogen, nitrogen, water vapor, and in some instances carbon monoxide. Decarburization occurs principally by the reaction C (in steel) + H20 = CO + H2 and follows a first-order rate law. The decarburization rate appreciably increases with an increase in temperature up to about 1325°F, but the increase in rate is small with fur- Use of a dry hydrogen atmosphere results in a relatively slow decarburization of steel and use of a wet hydrogen atmosphere results in relatively rapid decarburization. It is now generally recognized&apos; that the reaction C (in steel) + H2O = H2 + CO [l] accounts for most of the decarburization that occurs in wet hydrogen-containing atmospheres. The present article is concerned with the decarburization of low-carbon sheet steel in H2-N2 atmospheres ther increase in temperature. The limiting rate of decarburization can be predicted from a knowledge of the solid solubility and diffusivity of carbon and this rate is approached as the water-vapor content of an atmosphere is increased. Hydrogen contents above about 8 pct are beneficial only in that they permit higher levels of water vapor to be used without oxidation of the steel. A buildup of CO in the atmosphere lowers the rate of decarburization. containing various amounts of water vapor and carbon monoxide. The effectiveness of these atmospheres and the influence of temperature on decarburization rate will be considered. EXPERIMENTAL WORK The chemical compositions of the three steels used in decarburization-rate studies are listed in Table I. Steel A was a commercially hot-rolled rimmed steel that was cold-reduced at the Laboratory to furnish specimens 0.025, 0.041, and 0.059 in. thick. Most of the experiments in which this steel was used were made on the 0.041-in.-thick material. Steel B and Steel C were cut from 0.010-in.-thick commercially cold-reduced coils that were

Jan 1, 1963

By Leonard Greenburg

The American literature in the field of dust sampling and analysis has been growing rapidly since 1915. Studies made since that time clearly indicate that there are three fundamental factors that determine the production of lung pathology due to dust inhalation. These are the duration of exposure, the chemical and mineralogic nature of the dust and the concentration of the potentially harmful dust. In the estimation of the amount of the potentially hazardous dust there are essentially three problems involved: (I) a determination of the size of the hazardous dust; (2) determination of the most satisfactory apparatus and technique of sampling, and (3) the most satisfactory method of analysis. A complete study of the literature shows that industrial dust varies ill size from ultramicroscopic particles to those larger than lop in diameter and that relatively few particles are found over 5u in diameter. Approximately 10 to 25 per cent are less than 0.811 in diameter and the median size as a rule is found to lie between 1.25 and 1.75 microns. From the point of view of lung pathology the particle sizes of most importance lie between 0.5 and 5u. Of all the instruments for sampling dust the Impinger apparatus is the only one that will sample a larger body of air satisfactorily with small control errors and high efficiency in both low and high concentrations of dust. The Owens apparatus has the advantage of being more portable and somewhat easier to use but it does riot permit of the sampling of large volumes of air. It has a low efficiency in high concentrations of dust and does not permit dust weights to be obtained. From the point of dust-counting technique the author points out that in 1922 considerable experimentation with dark field and oblique illumination resulted in the conclusion that such methods were not readily duplicated from day to day and therefore yielded somewhat erratic results. Changes in the amount of illumination produced variations of several hundred per cent in dust counts obtained with dark ground

Jan 1, 1934

By B. L. Sackett

In a general way, the situation in copper smelting is quite similar to that of lead smelting. In other words, the introduction and successful flotation of copper ores has tended to decrease greatly the tonnage to be handled by the smelter and therefore has resulted in curtailed smelter operation. However, copper production has increased rather than decreased. The general effect of flotation has been to decrease the number of furnaces operating, but it has also increased to a considerable extent the difficulties in handling the material, just as was outlined in the case of lead smelting. In copper smelting, the flotation concentrates must be roasted and prepared for the reverberatory furnace. Handling Flotation Concentrates The handling of copper flotation concentrate, which is more or less wet and mucky, is more difficult than was the handling of the old gravity concentrate. Also, the roasting of the concentrate and the handling of the calcine produced is more difficult. That is mainly because the material is extremely fine and the tendency to higher dust losses is greatly increased. The draft in the roasting furnaces must be kept as low as possible, and the feeding of the calcine into the reverberatory furnace must be done carefully, so that dust losses may be kept at a minimum. Transition Stages oF Concentration and Smelting The general process through which the copper smelter has gone as a result of flotation has been somewhat as follows: In the relatively old days, when copper ores of low grade were first treated, a large number of furnaces were required, and naturally comparatively poor recoveries were made. Also, the profits on low-grade ores were small and the handling of those ores was possible only because of the large tonnages. Then came gravity concentration, which was a great improvement but which only incompletely removed the gangue material, the insoluble and the iron, from the copper ore, and made comparatively poor copper recoveries. This still left a considerable amount of insoluble and iron, as well as the copper itself, to be treated at the smelter.

Jan 1, 1928

By O&apos, P. E. T. Connor

Production of petroleum in Trinidad during 1938 reached the record figure of 17,737,061 bbl., an increase of approximately two and a quarter million barrels over 1937. The principal development during the year was along the Guapo fault, which extends from Point Ligoure to Coora across the southwest portion of the island. This fault has been proved to be a major factor governing oil accumulation in the area. At the southeast end of the fault the Coora field has been actively developed during the year and already ranks as one of the major productive fields of the island. Approximately seven miles to the northwest, another richly productive area has been developed on the north side of the fault at Los Bajos, while several widely spaced wells along the fault in the intervening area suggest that the whole seven miles betwen Los Bajos and Coora will prove productive. The Penal field was placed on regular production during the early part of the year on completion of a pipe line to the Point Fortin refinery. This is a shallow pumping field with a daily output of 2000 to 1500 bbl. of heavy oil. Down-flank extension of the oil-producing structures of Forest Reserve, Kern and Point Fortin have considerably extended the proven acreages on these structures and exploitation of the deeper Cruse sands on these structures has also materially increased the known reserves. Wildcat drilling has been active in several areas. Four wells have been completed in the Mayaro district; four at Moruga; six at Cedros; six in the Morne Diable area; one at Erin and one at Point Ligoure. Few data are available from these areas, but it is understood that some cncouraging results have been obtained. In the northern basin, north of the Central Range, two locations were spudded in at the end of the year after extensive seismograph surveys. Both these locations are scheduled for depths in excess of 10,000 ft. This northern basin is entirely untested by the drill and the present drilling program is being keenly followed by all operators in Trinidad.

Jan 1, 1939

By John Henry Harden

IT appears that in the earlier days of anthracite coal mining, 1824-25, the Lehigh region mined 76 per cent. of all the coal sent to market. During the same period Wyoming sent 12 and 5 per cent. respectively, whilst the Schuylkill sent 11 and 18 per cent., the number of tons marketed being in those days very small indeed. In the year 1828 the Schuylkill region mined over one-half of all the coal sent to market, and continued to do so for thirty years (with the exception of the year 1831), until 1858 ; since that date the pro¬duction has declined very steadily in comparison with the other regions, until, in 1876, it was only 34 per cent. Wyoming, in the year 1820, was mining 40 per cent., but the production of all the regions was very small ; in six years it declined to 5 per cent., increased to 34 per cent. in 1831, declined to 10 per cent. in 1838. Since which time the increase has been gradual, until 1873-75 Wyoming produced over 50 per cent. of all the anthracite coal sent to market. In 1867 the production exceeded that of Schuylkill, and has continued to do so since that time. In the year 1876, during the existence of the " coal combination," Wyoming lost 9 per cent. ; during the same time Lehigh gained 7 and Schuylkill 2 per cent. over their relative production of the preceding year, the decrease of Wyoming being two and a half million tons, the increase of the Lehigh one million, the decrease of the Schuylkill nearly three-quarters of a million. The extraordinary production of the Lehigh region at a time of decreased demand and in opposition to an agreement with the other regions to limit the supply to the supposed demand was the cause of the disagreement which ultimately broke up the combination of the great coal-producing and carrying companies. The Lehigh region produced very steadily, from 1829 to 1854, an average of about 22 per cent. of the whole production. From 1854

Jan 1, 1877

AT THE beginning of November, Mussolini had firmly established himself at the head of the Italian Government. He himself referred to the ascendancy of the Fascisti as the result of a revo-lution and bluntly informed Parliament that it was to vote, as a matter of form, as he ordered, or else be dissolved. One of the great consequences of these events in Italy was the impetus that they gave to simi-lar movements in other countries of Continental Europe. Another great event of the month in world affairs was the repudiation by the Turks of the Mudania agreement and their notification to the Allies that the latter must evacuate Constantinople and allow the Dardanelles to be closed. This had the effect of once more consolidating Great Britain, France and Italy in so far as this question is concerned, and there was prompt refusal to accede to the demands of the Turks. With the advent of November, both the United States and Great Britain were in- the throes of political contests. The result of the American election was a landslide against the administration and especially was it an expression of agrarian discontent and a declara-tion in effect that our domestic affairs are not good in spite of political representations that they are. In Great Britain, the Conservatives were put in power by a substantial majority in Parliament, but the fact that the Labor party became numerically the second party instead of the Liberals and that it polled about 40 per cent. of the total popular vote affords ground for misgivings, especially when it be considered that the Labor party was standing on distinctly socialis-tic and communistic principles. In Russia, there was a sitting of the Third Interna-tionale, to which Lenin in a speech made a quasi-confession of the failure of the communistic experiment in Russia. He admitted, moreover, that Russia could not industrially reconstruct herself without capitalistic help. Nationally the country is making progress. During November, the Far Eastern Repub-lic surrendered to the Soviet, which thus carried Russia back to the shore of the Pacific.

Jan 12, 1922

By W. S. Ayres

THE boiler from which these stay-bolts have just been obtained was that of the locomotive Catasauqua, Lehigh Valley Railroad, built at the company&apos;s shops, South Easton, Pa., in 1864. The iron is Lowmoor, and has been in use nearly ten years. The stay-bolts have become highly crystallized from some cause, and are very brittle, only requiring three blows of an ordinary machinist&apos;s hammer to break them. On the other hand, when annealed they are remarkably tough, as shown by the doubled sample. The majority of the broken bolts were found to be along the curve of the shell from a to c, Fig. 6. All of them were broken just inside the shell, and in no case next the fire-box. The fractures seen to have been of slow procedure, beginning at the top of the bolt, gradually working deeper and deeper until the pressure of steam overcame the tenacity of the remaining parts. Unequal contraction and expansion of the parts of the boiler seems in this case to be the only existing cause for a fracture. We cannot, from the data obtained, prove to an absolute certainty the manner in which the combined forces generated by the unequal contraction and expansion of the parts have arrived at their resultant work ; but we can, from these data and from existing circumstances, arrive at what seems to be a fair supposition, and thus at least anticipate the truth. The contraction and expansion in locomotive boilers has a large range between its extremes, and is very variable, both with reference to time and to their component parts. The shell and fire-box do not, perhaps, at any time, contract and expand at the same rate, nor proportionally ; but, on the contrary, owing to the great changes in temperature that take place both in the atmosphere around the shell, and in the fire in the fire-box, their condition is often changed suddenly, and widely from that which they just previously had. This racking tendency produces strains in the different parts, and it is fair to suppose that the continual motion of the two

Jan 1, 1874

By P. E. T. Connor, O&apos

Production of petroleum in Trinidad during 1938 reached the record figure of 17,737,061 bbl., an increase of approximately two and a quarter million barrels over 1937. The principal development during the year was along the Guapo fault, which extends from Point Ligoure to Coora across the southwest portion of the island. This fault has been proved to be a major factor governing oil accumulation in the area. At the southeast end of the fault the Coora field has been actively developed during the year and already ranks as one of the major productive fields of the island. Approximately seven miles to the northwest, another richly productive area has been developed on the north side of the fault at Los Bajos, while several widely spaced wells along the fault in the intervening area suggest that the whole seven miles betwen Los Bajos and Coora will prove productive. The Penal field was placed on regular production during the early part of the year on completion of a pipe line to the Point Fortin refinery. This is a shallow pumping field with a daily output of 2000 to 1500 bbl. of heavy oil. Down-flank extension of the oil-producing structures of Forest Reserve, Kern and Point Fortin have considerably extended the proven acreages on these structures and exploitation of the deeper Cruse sands on these structures has also materially increased the known reserves. Wildcat drilling has been active in several areas. Four wells have been completed in the Mayaro district; four at Moruga; six at Cedros; six in the Morne Diable area; one at Erin and one at Point Ligoure. Few data are available from these areas, but it is understood that some cncouraging results have been obtained. In the northern basin, north of the Central Range, two locations were spudded in at the end of the year after extensive seismograph surveys. Both these locations are scheduled for depths in excess of 10,000 ft. This northern basin is entirely untested by the drill and the present drilling program is being keenly followed by all operators in Trinidad.

Jan 1, 1939

By Walter Miller

The broad picture of petroleum refining engineering during 1934 continued to show a tendency in the direction of highly specialized processing improvements, particularly in manufacture of lubricating oil. The slowing up of the trend toward higher octane products in non-premium gasoline noticed in 1933 was definitely established as a fact by 1934 development, with just a slight indication of recession. No outstanding engineering achievements can be credited to 1934 in refinery cracking, unless the completion and successful operation of the 30,000-bbl. crude capacity combination cracking and skimming unit at Texas City, Texas, and a 20,000-bbl. similar unit in the East can be listed as such. Development and improvement was largely a continuation of previous lines of endeavor. Such trend as there is shows a continnation in the direction of very large integrated skimming and cracking units. A lessening of the cost of ethyl lead, coupled with the reaching of the octane number "ceiling," kept the subject of "reforming" low-octane gasoline into high-octane products pretty well in the background. Considerable interest, however, was shown during the year in cracking and polymerizing of refinery gases into high-octane motor fuel. The commercial development and application of this activity was greater in 1934 than during any previous year. Fair yields of gasoline of satisfactory stability and high antiknock value were reported, ranging from 2 to 8 gal. per 1000 cu. ft. of fixed refinery gas, yields varying with both the nature of refinery gas treated and processing methods. Assuming economic feasibility, regarding which there is still difference of opinion, gas polymerization offers the industry a possible outlet for its gases more in keeping with its basic chemical composition and value. The increased interest of railroads and heavy-duty truck and tractor manufacturers served to focus more attention on diesel fuels. The publicity given the Union Pacific diesel train, the Burlington "Zephyr" and others operated on special diesel fuels served to revive the intimations and fears of several years ago as to the ultimate replacement of the gasoline motor by diesel engines in even the passenger car field. How-

Jan 1, 1935