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By Matthew Russell, Bobby Randhawa, Leopoldo Mariscal Samaniego, Jose A. Puente, D. Brosig, Paykan Safe

The La Caridad copper smelter, located in Nacozari, Mexico, have started a multi-year plan to reduce sulfur dioxide and particulate matter emissions into the environment. In 2014 the smelter completed a voluntary plant-wide SO2 process emissions inventory as part of the smelter’s proactive environmental stewardship policy. In turn, this triggered the development of several environmental projects to alleviate these emissions. A strategy consisting of improved capture efficiency of the sources with greatest impact has been followed to maximize cost-effectiveness. The reduction of secondary emissions from the Teniente Converter, as well as of primary and secondary emissions from the Peirce-Smith Converters have been key areas of priority. Additionally, a new system to capture and recover particulate matter from the Anode Refining Furnaces off-gas is also in the process of being implemented. This paper presents an overview of the work developed behind this effort and the smelter’s vision towards a greener future. INTRODUCTION The La Caridad copper smelter is owned and operated by Metalurgica de Cobre S.A. de C.V. (a subsidiary of Grupo Mexico). Currently, the smelter has a production capacity of 300,000 tonnes of anodic copper per year. The smelter is coupled with a 300,000 t/y electrolytic refinery. Other by-products (such as precious metals and sulfuric acid) are also generated as part of an integrated process. The original smelter started operating in 1986 with one Furukawa concentrate dryer, one Outokumpu Flash Smelting Furnace (FSF), two slag cleaning electric furnaces (SCFs), three Peirce-Smith Converters (PSCs), two Anode Refining Furnaces (ARFs) and one casting wheel. In 1997, a plant expansion project was concluded with the installation of one steam dryer, one Modified Teniente Converter (MTC), one additional ARF, one additional casting wheel, and the electrolytic refinery [1]. Over the years, the smelter management has implemented numerous environmental projects to alleviate SO2 and particulate matter (PM) emissions. The smelter process gas handling system captures the process gases from the FSF, MTC, and the three PSCs. The process gases are cleaned and conditioned and sent to the two acid plants. The first acid plant (with a capacity of 226,000 Nm3/h, wet basis) was commissioned in 1988 to process the FSF and PSC off-gases. A second acid plant (with a capacity of 195,000 Nm3/h, wet basis) was commissioned as part of the smelter expansion project [1]. The PSCs also have a secondary gas handling system with a dedicated baghouse and stack. The Furukawa dryer off-gas reports to a dedicated electrostatic precipitator (ESP) for dedusting before venting via a local stack. Process gas from the two SCFs, along with hygiene ventilation from various sources inside the smelter (including matte and slag tapping hoods from the FSF) report to a baghouse-based gas handling system and vent to atmosphere via a local stack. The original ARFs do not have an off-gas handling system, however, each ARF has a post- combustion chamber which naturally vents the process gases to the atmosphere via a dedicated stack.

Jan 1, 2019

By W. L. Oliveira, J. R. Sobrinho, V. M. Hamza, S. M. Eston

The Ipueira III chrome mine is located in the northeastern part of the state of Bahia, Brazil. Extraction is actually at depths less than 300 m, but below level 200 serious environmental problems have been encountered with respect to control of air quality, toxic gas, dust and thermal comfort. At the request of the mining company the University of São Paulo started a research program to investigate the origin and occurrence of the critical problems and to propose solutions. A ventilation survey was carried out first which revealed the existence of several air leakages and short circuits that contributed to substantial reductions in the air supply to some of the main producing levels. Computer simulation of the ventilation network showed that extending the intake air shaft to deeper levels was the most convenient and economic solution to improve the air quality. The ventilation survey was followed by a mapping of the toxic gas emissions and thermal comfort levels in several parts of the mine. The air quality conditions were evaluated as a function of gas emission and heat generation associated with production and development activities. The results show that environmental conditions are already critical in most of the working levels and neither an increase in production nor deepening of the mine can be taken up without substantial changes in the ventilation system. INTRODUCTION Environmental concern is growing in Brazil and several underground mines are starting environmental engineering programs. The LACASEMIN - Laboratory of Environmental Control and Mine Safety of the Mining Engineering Department of the University of São Paulo - was contacted by Mineração Vale do Jacurici to start a research program for investigating the origin and occurrence of environmental problems that existed in the Ipueira III chrome mine. This research program involved field measurements of air quantities with gas levels monitoring, evaluation of heat stress parameters, determination of adequate flow patterns through computer simulations and training of mine technical staff. This paper presents the results of the first 4 months of this research program. The Ipueira III mine is located in the northeastern part of the state of Bahia, near the city of Senhor do Bonfim at about 400 km inland from the state capital city of Salvador. Chromite mineralization is quite widespread in this area and often associated with mafic and ultramafic rocks which cut across regional gneisses and migmatites. ROM production in 1992 varied between 25,000 to 40,000 tons per month, 25% being of lump type (38% of Cr2O3) and 75% being of fines. Lump is manually separated and fines are concentrated in a nearby plant. All the production goes directly to the group processing steel plants near Salvador. The Ipueira III mine is currently under some adverse economic situation because of imports from South Africa and Russia, which have better grades and sometimes a lower content of phosphorous. Consequently there has been little progress in the development of new mines and even in those currently under operation the extraction is becoming more difficult due to the lack of investment in improving mining methods and ventilation systems. In spite of such difficulties the company has backed up studies for initiating an environmental engineering investigation of the Ipueira III mine. MINING METHODS AND VENTILATION SCHEMES The mining methods adopted have changed as a function of extraction depth, rock mass strength and ore body geometry. Initially the orebody was found to be fairly continuous and dipping at about 55 degrees from surface

Jan 1, 1993

By Lane White

Environmental regulations have become a decisive factor for many minerals industry operations. Managers face new liabilities as a result of environmental laws, and restrictive permitting requirements for new projects make mine development an increasingly difficult proposition. An abundance of federal, state and local environmental laws and regulations already confront on-going minerals operations, and complex new legislation and rule-making is always in progress. Acronyms and initials like RCRA, CERCLA, SARA and EIS become as familiar as reserves, tons, grades and recoveries. The growth of such regulation has created a new category of professional employees - environmental scientists and engineers-whose presence will influence minerals production activity from now on. The disciplines of environmental science and engineering are still being defined. While these definitions are being worked out, companies in the minerals industry have responded by hiring people with professional experience in existing disciplines and training them to their special needs. An environmental consulting industry of substantial proportions has developed to offer expertise where producing companies may not find it economic to hire full-time professionals. The mining schools have responded by introducing environmental course work, but these programs have yet to supply a significant number of environmental professionals to the minerals industry. To gain some perspective on where minerals producers now stand in their hiring of environmental professionals, ME recently surveyed 20 companies, with questions about how they go about the business of managing environmental compliance. Twelve companies re¬sponded to the survey, and the results

Jan 1, 1991

By P. Schmieder

"The close vicinity of mining companies to other sites that are used for commercial and residential purposes or to areas under conservation as well as the fact that the people become more and more sensitive to emissions have led to a negative attitude towards mining operations in the neighborhood. It is above all the use of drilling and blasting techniques that give rise to objections, in the course of which demands for more environmentally-friendly production methods have been voiced. It is in this context that production methods without the use of explosives are considered as an option. After all, the use of such production methods is the only alternative for some quarry operators. The question is what are the true benefits of these techniques and what is the relation between a possible improvement of the environmental effects on the one hand and the technological potential as well as the costs on the other. It is intended to assess the mining techniques for solid rock in their entirety. This paper will therefore look at the aspects for assessing mining techniques in the context of their environmental impact and the costs."

Jan 1, 2005

By A. D. Davis, C. J. Webb, C. S. Johnson

The Belle Eldridge Mine is an inactive lead-zinc mine in Spruce Gulch south of Deadwood, South Dakota. Acidic mine drainage (AMD) produced at the site drains into Spruce Creek, a tributary of Whitewood Creek. The site is on U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) property. Extensive fieldwork was done at the Belle Eldridge Mine through the cooperation of the BLM and the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology. The site was extensively mapped to identify physical and environmental hazards such as tailings, waste rock, collapsed buildings, adits and workings. An exhaustive search of the historical records of the Belle Eldridge Mine was conducted. Maps of the under-ground workings of the Belle Eldridge dating from the 1930’s and 1940’s were found. The maps were used to correlate currently collapsed features to old adits and tunnels. Using hand corers and a portable drill rig, waste rock, tailings and soil core samples were collected and depth to bedrock was determined and the total volume of waste and tailings pile were determined. Related work examined the hydrology of the site. The site is very complex hydrogeologically. Numerous underground and surface workings and tunnels add to the complexity. Several seeps are located at the site, one of which is producing AMD. Recharge to the site was studied, and a 100-year flood plain map was produced.

Jan 1, 2000

By J. M. Pachter

Property sales and acquisition are prominent features of today's coal industry. Before selling or buying a site, a company must know the property's economic net worth. Any evaluation of economic net worth would be inadequate if determinations of a property's environmental liabilities and costs were omitted. Short-and long-term costs can result from liabilities related to reclamation, water treatment, subsidence, and hazardous waste disposal. A structured, interdisciplinary approach can aid in the delineation, summation, and scheduling of these costs and liabilities.

Jan 1, 1987

By J. M. Pachter

Property sales and acquisition are prominent features of today's coal industry. Before selling or buying a site, a company must know the property's economic net worth. Any evaluation of economic net worth would be inadequate if determinations of a property's environmental liabilities and costs were omitted. Short-term and long-term costs can result from liabilities related to reclamation, water treatment, subsidence, and hazardous waste disposal. A structured, interdisciplinary approach can aid in the delineation, summation, and scheduling of these costs and liabilities.

Jan 1, 1986

The Environmental Excellence in Exploration (E3) project is driven by the recognition that the minerals industry can only maintain its long term viability by ensuring its continued access to lands to explore for, and develop, new mines. Widespread implementation of sound environmental management practices by the exploration community and improved education and understanding of that by stakeholders will help substantially in accomplishing this, and E3 is designed to meet these needs. Exploration crews are now viewed as ambassadors for the global mining community. Their performance in managing the environmental aspects of an exploration program can demonstrate a commitment on the part of the international mining sector to environmentally responsible exploration and mining. We have all observed that failure to behave responsibly can alienate local residents, encourage anti-mining NGOs and jeopardize development. As the saying goes, ?you don?t get a second chance to make a first impression?, and we want to make a favourable first impression. The E3 project is focused on creating an electronic manual, the e-manual, which will provide rapid access to the most up-to-date information on environmental management practices for minerals exploration globally. The e-manual will reflect current thinking and practices in environmental management. It will be richly illustrated with actual examples that reflect the realities of exploration. It will strive to identify the key environmental issues and concerns that apply to most exploration projects, and identify other sources of relevant information useful to field practice. It is our belief that E3, or something very like it, is central to ensuring that the industry survives the current challenges to its viability. E3 will be a cornerstone of the mining industry?s drive to sustainability simply stated, if we are not permitted to explore for mines, there will be none of them at some point in the relatively near future.

May 1, 2002

By J. P. Jarrell

Environmental considerations are of increasing importance in determining the acceptability, schedule and cost of expansion ofCanada's uranium processing industry. Environmental considerations must be addressed in the early stages of facility planning. This results in a dilemma, as the process data needed to predict physical environmental impacts are not yet available from process design activities. Hence, a business risk is incurred if plant design is carried forward to meet these requirements prior to project (or site) approval. On the other hand, project scheduling normally mitigates against leaving process design engineering until such time as project approval is obtained. This paper examines the experience gained in Eldorado Nuclear's proposed expansion of refining capacity as viewed by an environmental engineering consultant. The history of the project and the relationship to process design functions in the two-year period prior to the Port Granby environmental hearings are reviewed. During the Port Granby public hearing, there was a consensus that normal operation of the proposed refinery could be successfully integrated with the site's natural environmental constraints. Moreover, the radiological impact from plant operations was demonstrated to be inconsequential. However, concerns were raised relating to plant upset and accident situations. These concerns are summarized. Process data requirements identified during the environmental hearings are discussed. Finally, the concerns for on-site burial of radioactive waste are reviewed. These concerns focussed on long-term stability of the waste in the presence ofgroundwater transport, erosion and glaciers. The AECB's position on waste management with regard to this project is reviewed in light ofthe implications for design.

Jan 1, 1979

By Shallesh K. Patel, Richard M. Powers, Patrick Zhang

Perceived environmental impacts from flotation reagents used in the phosphate industry have been of concern for nearly a decade. A research program was initiated to determine the distribution, fate, and consequences of flotation reagents (fatty acids, fuel oils, and amines) within the environment. Therefore, laboratory investigations of biodegradation and soil attenuation of the reagents were conducted along with field flotation mass balances and groundwater investigations in clay settling, sand tailings, and undisturbed areas. Sample analysis and a reagent mass-balance model indicated that most reagents are distributed in clay settling and sand tailings areas. Groundwater analyses showed no fatty acids or amines in any of 19 surficial or intermediate aquifer water samples. In contrast, fuel oils were detected in the surficial aquifer at all sand tailings areas in concentrations ranging between 8.5 and 0.5 mg/L. Fuel oil was also detected in trace amounts (0.6 mg/L) in one intermediate aquifer well located in an active sand tailings area. All fuel oil concentrations detected were very low and, coupled with a biodegradation rate of approximately 10% per month, all concentrations should be within reference levels in six months. Based upon the results of this study, use of flotation reagents in the beneficiation process of the Florida phosphate industry present no long-term threat to the environment.

Jan 1, 1999

A decision by joint-venture partners Anglo American, Gencor, and the Industrial Development Corporation to proceed with the expansion of the Columbus Stainless Steel plant in Middelburg will contribute significantly towards the economic growth that South Africa needs so desperately. The expanded facility, expected to come on-line in 1995, will be the largest single-plant producer of stainless steel in the world, and the company will rank sixth overall in world production.

Jan 1, 1993

By J. L. Jambor, M. J. Baker, M. J. Logsdon

"Abstract - Prior to the development of the Diavik Diamonds Project, baseline studies were conducted to determine the geochemical characteristics of four kimberlite orebodies as an aid in the design of both the water-management system and the facilities for containment of processed kimberlite and ore stockpiles. Materials tested included field samples of volcaniclastic and pyroclastic kimberlite, processed kimberlite (i.e., kimberlite ore which had been screened and washed as part of the processing procedure), and sedimentary mudstone (a minor xenolithic unit which was assimilated during kimberlite emplacement). Approximately 200 samples of kimberlite materials were collected as part of the geochemistry program. Test-work included whole-rock chemical analyses, acidbase accounting, kinetic leach tests using columns, and mineralogical analyses. Diavik kimberlite has major oxide and trace-element concentrations consistent with global averages for kimberlite. The mean total-sulfur content of the kimberlite material is 0.22 wt% S, but with a significant range. The kimberlite has an excess of carbonate minerals over sulfide minerals (average CO2 = 4 wt%, present mainly as calcite), and has a mean neutralization potential of 311 kg CaCO3 equivalent/tonne. A reactive form of framboidal pyrite associated specifically with the mudstone xenoliths is the primary source of sulfide-sulfur. Long-term kinetic tests confirmed the preliminary interpretations that were made from the static-test results. Kimberlite and processed kimberlite are net acid-consuming materials that produce alkaline drainages and have low but detectable leaching rates for SO4 and specific trace metals such as Al, Co, Cu, Ni, and Zn. If segregated from the kimberlite, mudstone xenoliths are acid-generating (pH = 3) and produce an effluent with elevated concentrations of SO4, Fe, Al, Cu, Ni, and Zn. The study demonstrates that xenolithic units in Diavik kimberlites have an important effect on the environmental geochemistry of the ore rock. The mineralogy and aqueous geochemistry of the kimberlite materials are such that they may not be suitable for general earthworks or as an alkaline agent and should report to an engineered facility to protect site water quality."

Jan 1, 2001

By P M. Ashley, M Muller

Massive sulphide ZnPbCuAg deposits in the Halls Peak district of north-eastern NSW are of the submarine volcanogenic type. They occur as a number of small lenses enclosed in shale and epiclastic rocks, in association with felsic volcanics of early Permian age. The deposits crop out in steep terrain near the eastern edge of the New England plateau. Local relief of 700 m and slopes up to 50¦, coupled with an average annual rainfall of about 1000 mm has led to local severe land sliding in previously mined areas. Mining from the 1890s to the 1960s has also resulted in unconstrained drainage of heavy metal-bearing acid waters and physical dispersion of finer grained metalliferous sediments into the Chandler River. Waters emanating from the main landslide area, from underground workings and draining scattered unconfined stockpiles of massive sulphide ore have pH values of 3 to 4 and contain elevated contents of Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd and Fe. Chemical mobility of heavy metals into streams occurs under low pH conditions with Zn exhibiting the greatest dispersion. Increasing pH conditions downstream cause precipitation of Fe phases and coprecipitation of heavy metals. Physical dispersion of secondary metal-bearing minerals into the surrounding creeks results in wt% levels of Cu, Pb and Zn in the stream sediments thereby exceeding the regional background values by one to three orders of magnitude. Areas disturbed by mining are characterised by lack of vegetation, biomagnification of heavy metals into algae and lower plants, and partial recolonisation by metal-tolerant grass species (Snow Grass, Poa sieberana; Blady Grass, Lomandra longifolia). Rehabilitation measures will have to include landslide stabilisation, impervious sealing or removal of sulphidic materials, import of topsoil and revegetation by metal-tolerant, slow-growing native grass and shrub species.

Jan 1, 1995

By Muller M, Ashley PM

Massive sulphide ZnPbCuAg deposits in the Halls Peak district of northeastern NSW are of the submarine volcanogenic type. They occur as a number of small lenses enclosed in shale and epiclastic rocks, in association with felsic volcanics of early Permian age. The deposits crop out in steep terrain near the eastern edge of the New England plateau. Local relief of 700 m and slopes up to 50¦, coupled with an average annual rainfall of about 1000 mm has led to local severe landsliding in previously mined areas. Mining from the 1890's to the 1960's has also resulted in unconstrained drainage of heavy metal-bearing acid waters and physical dispersion of finer grained metalliferous sediments into the Chandler River. Waters emanating from the main landslide area, from underground workings and draining scattered unconfined stockpiles of massive sulphide ore have pH values of 3 to 4 and contain elevated contents of Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd and Fe. Chemical mobility of heavy metals into streams occurs under low pH conditions with Zn exhibiting the greatest dispersion. Increasing pH conditions downstream cause precipitation of Fe phases and coprecipitation of heavy metals. Physical dispersion of secondary metal-bearing minerals into the surrounding creeks results in wt% levels of Cu, Pb and Zn in the stream sediments thereby exceeding the regional background values by one to three orders of magnitude. Areas disturbed by mining are characterised by lack of vegetation, biomagnification of heavy metals into algae and lower plants, and partial recolonisation by metal-tolerant grass species (Snow Grass, Poa sieberana; Blady Grass, Lomandra longifolia). Rehabilitation measures will have to include landslide stabilisation, impervious sealing or removal of sulphidic materials, import of topsoil and revegetation by metal-tolerant, slow-growing native grass and shrub species.

Jan 1, 1995

By Bruce W. Downing, Philip G. Claridge

"The availability of environmental data is a major concern in the development of an exploration project through the permitting and feasibility stages. The collection of these data should ideally start very early in a major exploration program. Although a large proportion of the environmental data can also be used for exploration purposes, (e.g. stream-sediment, soil, and rock analyses), environmental sampling will rarely have been initiated at an early date. For the Windy Craggy project, a major environmental concern is the potential for generation of acid rock drainage from waste-rock piles. The project is reviewed with respect to the environment of the deposit, deposit geology, mineralization and reserves, the sequence of exploration activities to the present, the potential for the development of acid rock drainage, the geochemistry and water quality, and the integration of exploration and environmental databases and their application to environmental planning. IntroductionIn the classical sense of exploration of a mineral deposit, the efforts throughout exploration are routinely directed at confirming the existence of the deposit and defining its extent, grade and continuity. Environmental issues are usually tackled separately, possibly by different personnel at a later date. When that is the case, an opportunity is lost to build, from an early date , a comprehensive database that (I) will satisfy the needs of conventional exploration and environmental monitoring, and (2) is usable as a predictive tool for environmental impact assessment.The concept of environmental geochemistry is not complex. The availability of environmental data is a major concern in the development of an exploration project to the feasibility and permitting stages. The collection of data should ideally start very early in any major exploration program. In many cases a significant proportion of the geochemical exploration data gathered early in the life of a project will also be used later for environmental purposes (e.g. stream-sediment, water, soil, and rock analyses). Rarely, however, will the data gathered in a geochemical exploration program provide information as complete as that attainable if environmental objectives had been considered in scoping the work.A knowledge both of local and regional geochemical processes can lead to a better understanding of environmental impacts. This understanding is the basis upon which good environmental management practices may be built. Geddes Resources Limited has undertaken a major study of the natural environment in the Windy Craggy area which includes geology, surface and underground waters, soils, stream sediments, glaciers and geomorphology (Geddes Resources Limited, 1990). This paper deals with the building and integration of the exploration and environmental databases."

Jan 1, 1993

By J S. Kuszmaul, T O. Aspinall

The applicability of environmental geotechnics for erosion management is increasing in importance worldwide. The environmental impact of mining and evolving environmental legislation has been receiving increased attention worldwide in the last two decades (Bradfield, Shultz and Stone, 1996). The potential impacts associated with unstable spoil dumps from mine operations is the focus of concern both by the mining industry, environmental legislative agencies and members of the public. This is because of the need to increase the reliability of erosion prediction and in the minimisation of costs for spoil dump design. Engineered slopes of mine spoils may be stable at the end of construction, but they can deteriorate over time. Engineering design of mine spoil dumps seeks to reduce the potential for such erosion damage through correct selection of an initial stable landform scheme (Goh, 1997). The design of mine spoil dumps must also conform to the specifications of evolving legislation. The Queensland Environmental Management Overview Strategy (EMOS) states that, for minimised degradation of the surface area due to erosion during the development of a project, the erosion rates should be between 12 - 40 tonnes/hectare/year and that the depths of rills and gullies be limited to less than 30 cm (QDPI, 1988). The aim of engineering design is to ensure the long-term stability of the spoil dumps. The implementation of effective planning and operating procedures through recontouring and grading assists in the reshaping of spoil dumps to a safe, stable and non-erodible environment.

Jan 1, 1998

By Jack E. Thompson

I have spent my entire life in the mining industry pursuing what I believed was an honorable profession that provided products that were critical for our social and economic well being. Now I am told that all of my efforts been for nothing and that I have been doing something morally wrong - mining. This view of the future is not one that the mining industry has to allow to unfold. A determining factor in how things will turn out is continued improvement of the industry's environmental performance. To some extent, the current state of affairs in the United States is a result of the common perception that greedy corporations (usually foreign) are somehow ripping off US citizens of their native birthright or natural treasures in the name of corporate profits. Implicit in this view is the belief that corporations will take shortcuts or violate the environment in the name of profits. I have 26 years of experience in working in the copper, uranium and gold industries. Profits during those years were meager and difficult to find (Fig. 1). In fact, when I began working fresh out of college, I chose copper, which was then selling at around $1/lb. By the time I left copper mining, it was selling for 45 cents/lb. I then moved to uranium, which was selling for $52/lb. By the time I left it was $16/lb. I finally picked gold, which was then at ($650/oz). There is a whole generation of engineers, geologists and professionals who have spent two decades downsizing, closing mines, improving costs and getting smarter about how the mining industry does what it does. The environment, health and safety are areas where there have been great improvement. There are five characteristics of corporate governance that are critical for a company to develop and an industry to embrace if environmental, health and safety excellence is to reach new heights in the labor pool.

Jan 1, 1997

South Africa?s now a member of this body, tailored on the World Bank, and headquartered in Abidjan-Cote d'Ivoire. As a funding agency for capital projects within 59 member countries of the ADB it is to be expected that there are guidelines to the requirements for funding application and for project management and control.

Jan 1, 1996

By W. G. Dallas

The social and environmental problems presented by the location of a large zinc/ lead ore body within one mile of a thriving town are described. The development problems are social, involving the education of the in habitants , and environmental, requiring the development of a planning strategy and the evolution of a baseline and post -operational monitoring system. The necessity for an environmental-impact assessment and a thorough baseline study is emphasized. The continuing psycho-social consideration of community reaction is advocated.

Jan 1, 1977

In all the industries that require blasting operations using explosives, there exists numerous unwanted side effects of the blast which may pose as environmental hazards. These hazards face prominence, especially in India, where there are very stringent rules and regulations governing the use of explosives. The environmental hazards associated with blasting operations as a whole can be tacked successfully to a certain extent depending upon the ultimate expectations of ,the post-blast effects and the limitations of the environmental obligations as specified by the authorities from time to time and from place to place. The main parameters which require attention to limit the post-blast results to the optimum level are ground vibrations, dust pollution, gas pollution, air blast effects, noise pollution & fly rocks etc.

Jan 1, 1995