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By Berlen Moneymaker

THE development, within recent years, of core drills capable of drilling holes up to 72 in., or even more, in diameter, has made possible an entirely new and valuable method of geologic exploration, Although little used until recently as an exploratory tool except in the United States, by the Tennessee Valley Authority and the Corps of Engineers of the U. S. Army, for the exploration of damsites, the large-diameter core drill may be used to good advantage in other types of geologic exploration. Its princi-pal utility is that of supplementing, rather than replacing, other means of exploration. Although core is frequently recovered intact, the greatest advantage of large-diameter drilling is that the holes produced are large enough to be entered by the geologist and engineer, and thus afford an excellent means of examining undisturbed rock. The walls of the holes are smoothly cut, and in some rocks nearly or quite polished, so that the most minute details of structure and stratigraphy are clearly disclosed. Such features as faults, joints, bedding planes, weathered "seams," and beds or layers of soft materials, which are not always amenable to disclosure by cores recovered from small-diameter holes, are conspicuously displayed in the walls of large holes. Frequent reference to the drilling of large-diameter holes is made in engineering literature, but comparatively little emphasis has been placed on their value in geologic investigation. It is, therefore, intended that the present paper acquaint the geologist, as well as the engineer, with the large-diameter core drill and the technique involved in its use, and also with its advantages, disadvantages and limitations as an implement of geologic exploration.

Jan 1, 1938

By D. B. Myers

The consistent upward trend in crude oil production prevailing in California throughout the greater part of 1929, was effectively checked in November by a curtailment program instituted by mutual agreement between operators in four of the major fields. This program artificially reduced daily production to approximately the same daily figure as prevailed in December, 1928. The large amount of deep drilling during the later part of 1928 and during 1929 has established a potential, however, which is far in excess of refinery needs in the state. Low prices for crude oil which prevailed in California during 1928 continued during 1929. General curtailment continued in the older fields in San Joaquin Valley. The number of wildcat and exploratory wells drilled throughout California was materially increased, but no major field was discovered unless the recent bringing in of the Ohio Oil Co.'s Recreation Gun Club No. 1 well, near Venice in Los Angeles Basin, during the closing days of 1929 results in such a field. Significant developments during 1929 were: (1) The discovery of three deeper zones in the Santa Fe Springs field known as the O'Connell, Clarke, and Hathaway; (2) Kettleman Hills development and unanimous agreement to restrict production; (3) developments along the Santa Barbara Coast and the drilling of tideland permits; (4) extensions of some of the older producing areas in the San Joaquin Valley; (5) the Lawndale and Santa Barbara Mesa structures, the former discovered in Los Angeles Basin in 1928, the latter in Santa Barbara County in 1929, proved to be failures; (6) intensive exploration throughout the state and the drilling of a large number of deep wildcat wells; (7) discovery of oil by the Ohio Oil Co. in the Los Angeles Basin at Venice; (8) Long Beach and Ventura Avenue fields maintained steady production throughout the year. As a natural sequence to the discovery of high-gravity oil fields in Kettleman Hills and at Elwood in 1928, a tremendous amount of exploratory work was done in 1929 in areas underlain by rocks of lower Miocene age, particularly along the Santa Barbara Coast area, the San Joaquin Valley, and the Salinas Valley, where the Vaqueros and Temblor sands were considered to hold possibilities for production.

Jan 1, 1930

By G. B. Pryde

IN laying out a new mine, provision should be made for the ultimate recovery of as much coal in any given bed as is consistent with safety and economic mining. Though each mining district, if not each individual mine, has problems that make the adoption of any hard and fast rule impossible, certain basic principles are adapted to practically all conditions. One of the most vital is the provision for barrier pillars of ample dimensions to protect all haulage and permanent airways during the life of the property. Where conditions permit, room or butt entries should be driven on the strike or slightly to the raise and rooms turned at right angles to said entries. The width of rooms and room pillars is governed by conditions prevailing in the mines under consideration. A safe rule is: In advancing, extract not more than 25 to 35 per cent. of the entire seam; in exceptionally thick seams, considerably less than 25 per cent. should be taken. Rooms usually vary in length from 250 to 350 ft. (76 to 106 m.) with a barrier pillar of not less than 80 ft. between the last crosscut in rooms, and entry and room crosscuts should be driven on sights; room crosscuts should be driven at right angles to the direction of the rooms. In mines under excessively heavy cover or where roof conditions are bad, rooms should be driven narrow and a barrier pillar left at every fifth to tenth room. This barrier should be of such dimensions that one or more rooms, with pillars of usual dimensions, may be turned through it when the barrier is no longer required. Two of the advantages of such a barrier are the protection of the panel against peaking of roof load during pillar extraction and the easy closing of the entry in case of fire.

Jan 2, 1921

By A. H. Dierker

NEXT to the metal itself, molding sand is the most important raw material used in the manufacture of steel castings. There are no accurate, figures available but probably it would be safe to say that the average steel foundry uses approximately 1000 lb. of new molding sand per ton of castings produced. With untreated sands costing from two to four dollars (in some extreme cases it may run as high as eight or ten dollars) per ton delivered at the foundry siding, molding sand is an important item in the cost of making castings, and any information that may help to reduce this sand consumption should be of interest to the industry.

Jan 1, 1929

By N. W. Wickersham, Ward B. Blodget, Roberts R. Boyd

The year 1926 has seen few radical changes or developments in methods of drilling and handling oil wells, but it has been a year of steady progress and development in deep drilling and production methods. Probably the outstanding development of the year was recognition by the directors of the American Petroleum Institute of the importance of natural gas in the production of oil, and the Institute directors' resolutions in December, 1926, regarding regulation of gas production with oil by state legislation. This matter is extremely important and will receive the attention of the industry in 1927. Advances in Drilling Equipment The history of the progress of deep well drilling is the solution of problems as they have confronted the operator. As the prospects for deeper production have become apparent, methods of penetrating the earth to greater depths have been devised. Rotary Equipment Improvements in the construction and in the methods of operation of rotary drilling equipment have practically caused elimination of cable tools in California for all but shallow work. The rotary drill, from 1910 when it began to be a practical factor in California, has been making steady advances, first displacing cable tools for drilling to the oil sands in proved fields and later displacing the cable-tool outfit entirely. With the perfection of machinery for taking core samples of the formation penetrated, the rotary drill has become generally used for wildcat work, continuous coring being practiced when desirable. Deep Holes The use of the rotary drill has made commercially feasible the opening of oil fields at greater depths than was considered possible with cable tools. Heavier equipment has been promptly supplied as occasion has

Jan 1, 1927

By E. J. Rapperport, J. P. Pemsler

Proton irradiation of high-purity distilled berylliuwz was utilized to introduce various hydrogen contents from 0.00075 to 0.075 at. pct (0.83 to 83 ppm) in a band 0.004 cm wide. After irradiation, the specimens were heat-treated to effect hydrogen agglomeration. Observations of agglomerates in all specimens of the lowest hydrogen content indicate a hydrogen solubility of less than 0.83 ppm in the temperature range 350" to 1050°C. Estimates of the inter diffusion coefficient in the hydrogen solid solution of beryllium were obtained from measurements of the dimensions of hydrogen-depleted zones survounding agglomerated bubbles. A value of (approximately) 3 xlo-' sq cm per sec is obtained for the diffusion coefficient at 850" to 900°C. PREVIOUS investigators found that We solubility of hydrogen in beryllium is very small. Gulbransen and Andrew' state that beryllium does not react with hydrogen at 23 mm Hg between 300" and 900°C. Cotter ill et a1.' report that as-machined beryllium has an adsorbed hydrogen layer of 0.007 cu cm per sq cm of surface. No additional hydrogen is picked up in hydrogen at 0.1 mm Hg and between 200" and 80O°C, or when hydrogen is bubbled through molten beryllium. Beryllium hydride has been reported to exist in an ether solution,394 but decomposes at about 200°C; there is no substantial evidence for the existence of the hydride in the solid phase.

Jan 1, 1964

Open pit operators have found the dropball crane a great aid in cutting costs and hazards of secondary breakage. But a common problem in using the unit has been with the shock absorbing connection from the cable to the dropball itself. Blair Limestone Div. of Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. has come up with a new connector to solve this problem and to save the time usually lost in frequent replacement of the cable slings, chains, or old tires hitherto used at this point. J&L personnel solved the problem by combining three ideas from other dropball crane owners. Their unit consists of two long U-bolts running through a heavy spring originally made for use on a vibrating screen. Heavy duty swivels attached to the bent ends of the U-bolts provide attachment points for the crane cable and the special chain to the dropball. Connection at the dropball is by an eyelet welded directly into the mass of steel, and a special alloy chain is connected to this with a clevis.

Nov 1, 1955

By Frank Gilbreth

THE problem, of the crippled soldier in industry is not a problem of war work only; it is a problem of industrial development. As individuals, each one of you is seeking to provide our maimed heroes with such teaching as will render them, in the shortest possible amount of time, productive and satisfied members of the community. As individuals you are interested in the organizations that are preparing to receive these men, to train them and to place them at that work for which they are best fitted. As an organization, it is now your duty to take up the industrial end of the problem, to investigate existing conditions in the industries, to discover where the opportunities for employment lie, and so readjust industrial practice that the cripples may be utilized to their own and the community's good with the least shock to themselves or to the industries, and with the greatest amount of permanent benefit to all concerned. We have divided industrial opportunities suitable for cripples roughly, into three classes. First, such as already exist in the industries, which can be set aside for cripples only, present occupants being transferred to other work for which they can be fitted but which is not suitable for cripple work; second, opportunities in the industrial world that, through changes in the working equipment or tools, or through appliances attached to the cripple himself, can make the cripple a competitor of the sound worker; third, opportunities not existing at present in the industries, but which could be introduced for the good of the community, without placing the cripples into competition with any existing class of workers.

Jan 4, 1918

By H. A. Schlesinger

Various studies have estimated that for the next few decades, about half of all new power plants will be nuclear. The other half will be fueled with coal. Pending legislation on air pollution control would require all new coal-fueled power plants to install stack gas scrubbers or other technology to reduce sulfur oxide (SO,) emissions. These regulations would require flue gas desulfurization (FGD) or other technology for SO, reduction even on lower sulfur western coals. Among the options for FGD are single or dual alkali throw away processes using lime or limestone as the major reagent. These processes are currently more economically attractive than recovery processes, such as magnesium oxide and Wellman- Lord, that produce a salable product such as sulfur or sulfuric acid. One of the major problem areas with the throw away processes is disposal of the thrown away solid wastes, primarily calcium sulfite (CaSO3) and calcium sulfate (CaS04). Coal ash also must be disposed of, even if SOx reduction is not required. This paper addresses the alternatives for handling and disposal of throw away lime, limestone, and dual alkali process solid wastes. Advantages, disadvantages, and the economics of various methods are discussed. Both large central station power plants (500-1000 MW capacity) and smaller industrial power plants (up to 100 MW capacity) are considered. High sulfur eastern coals (53% S) and lower sulfur (3 1% S) western coals are considered.

Jan 1, 1981

By E. F. Koch, J. L. Walter

In a study of the structure and properties of tungsten wire used for lamp filaments, it became desirable to perform transmission electron microscopy on the wire in the annealed as well as in the drawn condition. Wire used for lamp filaments is generally drawn to diameters less than 0.010 in. which is too fine for the preparation of transmission samples from single wires. Thus, it is clear that some assembly of wires must be used to form a "wire sheet" similar to that used by Glenn and Duff.' Also, because recrystallized tungsten wire is brittle at room temperature, the "wire sheetJ' must be rigidly contained during any subsequent grinding and polishing operation. With these conditions in mind, a technique was devised for thinning tungsten wire of 0.001 to 0.010 in. diam for transmission electron microscopv. Sample Preparation. The commercially doped (218) tungsten filament wire was obtained from the Lamp

Jan 1, 1969

By Robert C. Edmiston

The measurement of temperatures in exploratory drill holes yields information on regional and local geothermal gradients and mean surface temperatures. This data may be beneficial to the mining geologist interested in the occurrence and oxidation of metallic sulfide minerals or to the mining engineer interested in subsurface temperatures or water movement. Additionally, the estimation of mean surface temperatures by the projection of thermal gradients to the ground surface provides data on which to evaluate infrared imagery as an exploration tool. Temperature measurements in 30 diamond drill holes in the Silver Bell mining district of Arizona show that a regional geothermal gradient of 2.45°C per 100 m increases to 3.03°C per 100 m near the ground surface. It is also found that an anomaly in the mean annual surface temperature of 0.5°C is associated with the shallow occurrence of disseminated sulfides. Changes in the geothermal gradient due to topography, water circulation, and formation changes also occur.

Jan 1, 1976

By J. M. Hartman

ONE of the most important subjects to the blast-furnace engineer is a thorough knowledge of the conditions affecting the temperature in the different portions of the furnace. All efforts to decrease the consumption of fuel and improve the working of the furnace must be based upon it, and I may, therefore, be permitted to place before you the results of my observations, and detail the conclusions to which they have led me. Tracing the thermic conditions from below upwards we have at the bottom of a blast furnace making No. 3 iron a temperature of 2900' F., which increases slightly to a point a little below the tuyeres. In the immediate vicinity of the tuyeres the temperature is somewhat lower, owing to the entering blast; but a short distance above the tuyeres, where all the oxygen of the blast has been converted into carbonic acid, the highest temperature in the furnace must be attained. This carbonic acid is, however, almost as soon as formed, converted by the glowing coal into carbonic oxide, a process which absorb, heat, reduces the temperature, and provides the active agent for the reduction of the iron ores. In its ascent the hot carbonic oxide gradually parts with its heat, first melting the descending iron and earthy materials, which drop down to the hearth of the furnace. The limit of this zone of fusion is rather sharply defined, and the temperature above this zone suddenly decreases. In its further ascent the hot gas drives off the carbonic acid from the limestone, which causes a further absorption of heat, and finally the gas escapes at the top, at a ternperature of about 250' F. if the furnace is working well. These changes of temperature I have attempted to represent graphically,

Jan 1, 1880

By J. M. Hartman

ONE of the most important subjects to the blast-furnace engineer is a thorough knowledge of the conditions affecting the temperature in the different portions of the furnace. All efforts to decrease the consumption of fuel and improve the working of the furnace must be based upon it, and I may, therefore, be permitted to place before you the results of my observations, and detail the conclusions to which they have led me. Tracing the thermic conditions from below upwards we have at the bottom of a blast furnace making No. 3 iron a temperature of 2900° F., which increases slightly to a point a little below the tuyeres. In the immediate vicinity of the tuyeres the temperature is somewhat lower, owing to the entering blast ; but a short distance above the tuyeres, where all the oxygen of the blast has been converted into carbonic acid, the highest temperature in the furnace must be attained. This carbonic acid is, however, almost as soon as formed, converted by the glowing coal into carbonic oxide, a process which absorbs heat, reduces the temperature, and provides the active agent for the reduction of the iron ores. In its ascent the hot carbonic oxide gradually parts with its heat, first melting the descending iron and earthy materials, which drop down to the hearth of the furnace. The limit of this zone of fusion is rather sharply defined, and the temperature above this zone suddenly decreases. In its further ascent the hot gas drives off the carbonic acid from the limestone, which causes a further absorption of heat, and finally the gas escapes at the top, at a temperature of about 250° F. if the furnace is working well. These changes of temperature 1 have attempted to represent graphically,

Jan 1, 1880

By C. M. Weld

The southeastern coast of China, from Ning-Po to .Macao, represents an element in the continental mass of Asia which has at practically all times in the remote past exhibited a tendency to rise rather than to subside.' This strip of land, 1,000 or more miles long by perhaps 150 miles wide at its widest part, has in fact stood above sea level since at least early Cambrian times, while the great basins to the north and west were receiving their massive accumulations of Sinian (Cambro-Ordovician), Carboniferous, and later deposits. We find, .therefore, a coastal fringe of metamorphic and igneous rocks bordering the huge expanses of sedimentary rocks which occupy the interior. Hong-Kong is situated toward the southwestern extremity of this fringe. Hong-Kong is an island of approximately 30 sq. miles, on the north shore of which is situated the city of Victoria, with its 325,000 inhabitants. This island was ceded to Great Britain in 1842. In 1560 the peninsula of Kowloon (about 5 sq. miles), being that part of the mainland lying directly across from the city of Victoria, was added to Hong Kong. Thirty-eight years later, in 1898, a stretch of territory, including the mainland behind Kowloon and. numerous adjacent islands, was leased to Great Britain for 99 years. This last addition is known as the "New Territory of Hong-Kong" and comprises 376 sq. miles in area. A map of Hong-Kong, Kowloon, and the "New Territory" is shown in Fig. 1. My studies of this total area of over 400 sq. miles were devoted primarily to an investigation of the mineral resources. Systematic mapping of the immensely complex exposures of rocks was not possible in the time at my disposal. However, observations in, this. direction warrant a few generalizations.

Jan 2, 1914

By Philip Drinker

IN THE mining and metallurgical industries, numerous problems arise requiring determinations of solid and of liquid particles suspended in air. Frequently, these problems are of local interest and involve purely economic or operating difficulties; on the other hand, toxic effects from the inhalation or the ingestion of substances suspended in air may be a matter of concern. For checking up process improvements or for determining ventilation efficiencies in problems of this general nature, various methods have been proposed. Although simpler methods are often satisfactory, precipitation combines several desirable features that other methods lack. This paper is, therefore, devoted to a discussion of portable alternating-current precipitators applicable to the quantitative determination and microscopy of dusts, fumes, and smokes in air. Small particles suspended in gases, such as air, are referred to in the literature as aerosols or suspensoids. Of these terms, suspensoids appears to be preferable as being more nearly in keeping with words in everyday use. In problems involving air pollution by small, particles-by suspensoids-it is convenient to distinguish three broad classes based on the size, the degree of dispersion, and the method by which the particles become suspended in the air. Dusts.-Particles or aggregates of particles, 150 to 1 micron in diameter, that are thrown into the air by mechanical agencies are termed dusts. Examples are silica, talc, cement, organic dusts such as hard rubber, starch, and cocoa; flocculated fume and smoke products. Fumes.-Particles, 0.2 to 1 micron in diameter, formed from chemical or physicochemical reactions are known as fumes. Examples are ammonium chloride, lead and mercury, zinc and magnesium oxides, fogs, and acid mists.

Jan 3, 1925

By Robert H. Richards

DuRing the winter of 1868-9,I was called upon by Professor F. H. Storer, to put up the Bunsen filter pump in the chemical laboratory of the Masschusetts Institute of Technology. As the laboratory is on the lower floor, it was found necessary to use a great deal of cumbrous pipe and apparatus to get the necessary column. It was then suggested that if an instrun~ent could be devised which would make use of the hydrant pressure in the service-pipe, it would do away with the objectionable features of the Bunsen pump. After using the Bunsen pump for some years, the jet pump to be described in this paper was devised, and it has since been adopted by Prof, Wing in the quantitative laboratory of the school. I am much indebted to Prof. Wing for his aid in starting the manufacture in brass of these jet pumps, whieh are now to be had in Boston. The jet pump much resembles the Giffard injector in form. It, differs from it in the fact that water is the impelling fluid, and air the impelled, while with the injector steam is used to impel water. The principle of condensation of steam, which is availed of in the injector, is entirely wanting in the jet pomp. The jet pump consists in a water jet, w, (see figure), a constriction or waist, a, and a waste tube, o. The success of the jet pump depends on the follow ing conditions: 1. The relation between the sizes of sectional area of a and w. ' 2. The proximity of n and w. 3. The form and angle of the two hollow cones whose vertices make the constriction a. 4. The relative size of sectional area of w and o. 5. The zigzags, or an equivalent means of making foam. In the following discussion, let a, w, and o repre sent the diameters of these parts of the jet pump. A number of experiments were' .tried to ascertain

Jan 1, 1879

By T. W. Healy, M. S. Moignard

The use of electrokinetic or zeta-potential phenomena in studies of the properties of mineral sulphides has increased greatly over recent years. This review aims to examine and discuss the body of literature on the subject of electrokinetic properties of sulphides in a comprehensive and critical manner. Although the review covers the period from 1925 to 1975, it is only in the past ten years that researchers have been fully aware of the implications and problems of chemical reactions, notably oxidation and precipitation reactions, on the surface properties of sulphide minerals. These papers are discussed in more detail than the earlier publications. A table containing a list of determinations of iso-electric- points and points-of-zero-charge of mineral sulphides, and the methods employed in obtaining these results, is presented.

Jan 1, 1976

By G. Kinder, R. Gilges, W. Stoker, R. Davey

The Bingham Canyon Mine, located 48 km (30 mi) southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah, is operated by Kennecott Copper Corporation's Utah Copper Division. This operation is the world's largest open-pit copper mine and produces 96 000 tons (106,000 st) ore and 327 000 tons (360,000 st) waste each day. This material is loaded by large electric shovels and transported by both truck and rail haulage. To meet the requirements of the Clean Air Act of 1970 (as amended), new facilities for the control of smelter emissions were required and are now nearing the final stages of construction. The facility will be capable of treating all the output from the mine, some 2,530 tons (2,789 st) per day of combined concentrate and precipitate. Costing $280 million and necessitating the replacement of reverberatory furnaces with continuous smelting vessels, the plant, with its massive and complex gas handling and acid-making facility, is required to remain on-stream with the minimum of pollution control equipment outages to conform with Federal Regulation 52.2325. As part of this giant effort, the smelter planning team and supervisory staff considered that new, well organized, highly flexible, readily available maintenance information was essential to assist the maintenance personnel in the performance of their duties.

Jan 1, 1979

In the late 19th century Fremont Pass was only a gateway to Leadville, Colo., 12 miles to the north. Some of the silver, lead, and zinc won from this famous camp crossed the Continental Divide at Climax, passing by the huge outcrop of molybdenum on Bartlett Mountain. This element, relatively un- known in the world of commerce, was then nothing more than a joke to play on greenhorn prospectors. Even 30 or 40 years later, after the demand for metals created by World War I had forced temporary use of molybdenum as an alternate for tungsten in tool steels, the Bartlett Mountain outcrop once again became merely a curiosity. With the persistent efforts of Brainerd Phillipson, for years the president of Climax and almost the only employe, use of molybdenum gradually began to grow, first in tool steel and later in the alloy steels required by the growing automotive industry. Mr. Phillipson was first an engineer and second a salesman. The combination of these two qualities is the key to the story, not only of Climax sales but also of the growth of molybdenum from an object of idle curiosity to the point where it is today, along with chromium and nickel, one of the most versatile alloying elements in the iron and steel industries and increasingly important in chemistry.

Aug 1, 1955

By Wm. I. Weisman, C. W. Tandy

Consumption of fluorspar in the United States in the last ten years has doubled to 1.34 million tons. One main, reason for the increase has been the use of the basic oxygen furnace to produce steel which requires considerably more fluorspar than the open hearth. The increasing consumption of aluminum and fluorocarbon chemicals will require more fluorspar, Since 1964 domestic fluorspar prices have advanced over 70%. Maximum prices were attained in 1971 and remain stable. These higher prices have brought about the expansion of production capacity at many of the present mines and mills. Exploration has been intensified, resulting in new discoveries, which are being brought into production. Many deposits, heretofore considered uneconomical, are being reappraised for possible development. Companies who have not previously mined fluorspar are actively seeking and acquiring new properties. The outlook for the continued health of the domestic fluorspar industries is favorable at present prices; however, it is doubtful that production will be greatly increased. New production will have to come from presently inaccessible areas of much greater distance from consuming centers. Prices will have to be higher to support this production. Domestic fluorspar production meets only 20% of domestic consumption. Thus, reliance on imports on fluorspar in the future will become increasingly more critical.

Jan 1, 1975