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By Ralph B. Stevens

INTRODUCTION Underground fires continue to be one of the most serious hazards to life and property in the mining industry. Although underground mines are analogous to high-rise buildings where persons are isolated from immediate escape or rescue, application of technology to locate and control fire hazards while still in their controllable state is slow to be implemented in underground mines. Even in large surface structures such as hotels, often only fire protection systems which meet minimal laws are implemented due to the high cost of adding extensive extinguishing systems, isolation barriers, alternate ventilation, escape routes and alarm systems. Incomplete and ineffective protection occasionally is evidenced where costs would not seem to be a factor, such as the $211 million MGM Grand Hotel fire November 21, 19801. Paramount in increasing fire safety and decreasing the threat of serious fire is early warning followed by proper decision analysis to perform the correct action. However, very complex fire situations can be produced in structures such as high-rise buildings and underground mines simply because of the distances between the numerous fire-potential locations and fire safe areas. Other complexities arise when normal activities occur that emit products of combustion signaling a fire condition to a sensitive fire/smoke sensor. For example, the operation of diesel equipment or the performance of regular blasting can produce combustion products that reach the sensitive alarm points of many sensors2. Smoke detectors for surface installations provide fire warning when occupants are at a distant location or when sleeping, thus greatly reducing injuries and property damage. However, when installed in the harsh environments of underground mines, fire and smoke detection equipment soon becomes inoperative, unreliable, or requires excessive maintenance. The U.S. Bureau of Mines has performed many studies and tests to improve fire and smoke protection for underground mine workers3. This paper describes several USBM safety programs which included in-mine testing with mine fire and smoke sensors, telemetry and instrumentation to develop recommendations for improving mine fire safety. It is hoped that the technology developed during these programs can be added to other programs to provide the mining industry with the necessary fire safety facts. By recognizing fire potentials and being provided with cost-effective, proven components that will perform reliably under the poor environmental conditions of mining, mine operators can provide protection for their working life and property equal to that which they provide for themselves and their families at home. The basis of this report is two USBM programs for fire protection in metal and nonmetal mines4,5 and one coal program6. The data was collected beginning in May 1974 and continuing through the present with underground tests of a South African fire system installed at Magma Mine in Superior, Arizona, and a computer-assisted, experimental system at Peabody Coal Mine in Pawnee, Illinois. The conduct of each program was as follows: • Define the problem and its magnitude in the industry • Develop concepts to solve or diminish the problem • Review available hardware or systems approaches to fit the concepts • Install and demonstrate the performance of a prototype system through fire tests in an operating mine. MINE FIRE FACTS Whether in coal or metal and nonmetal mines, the potential severity of fire hazard is directly related to location. As shown in Figure 1, fire in intake air at zones A, B, C or D can cause contamined air to route throughout the mine quickly if not detected, isolated or rerouted. Causes and location of former metal and nonmetal fires are represented in Table 1; the cause and location of fatalities and injuries is shown in Table 2. Coal-related fires and their impact on deaths and injuries are graphed in Figure 2; their locations are described in Table 37. Significantly the table shows that the hazard to personnel was three times greater for fires occurring in shaft or slope areas, and the percentage of deaths and injuries was four times that of other areas. Number of Persons Affected A 129-mine sample indicated that from 8 to 479 employees per shift work in underground metal and nonmetal mines, and that deeper mines have larger populations, as shown in Figure 3. Coal mining relates similar employment, and a 16-state sample of 670 mines employing at least 25 persons shows the distribution in Figure 4. Drift mines accounted for 58 percent of the sample but employ only 45 percent of the underground workers.

Jan 1, 1982

By Paul Weaver

OF the four papers that comprise this TECHNICAL PUBLICATION, three are case histories of individual geophysical prospects, subsequently tested by drilling. The bibliography of Dr. Barton's published scientific papers† includes investigaions in physiography and surface geological mapping, as well as his geophysical papers, and from this list it is to be observed that he early recognized the place of different types of geophysical prospecting methods in the search for geological structures of economic importance. Moreover, his viewpoint was not merely that the structures should be found, but that the geophysical data should be examined quantitatively to determine the geometry of the structures. In other words, that although these data are insufficient to deduce a unique form for the structure that caused the effects measured in the data, the engineering computations should be carried-out to give as much of a definite configuration to he structure as the data permitted, in order that the testing of the structures could be conducted in the most economical manner and with the idea that the experience so gained could be later incorporated in the study of structures subsequently found. Dr. Barton continually emphasized the quantitative use of geophysical observations, whereas at the time that he began his specialization in geophysics it was considered sufficient to use observations only qualitatively. He, more than any one else, was responsible for -the first volume on geophysical prospecting issued by the Institute in 1929, and his three articles in that volume stressed the quantitative use of geophysical prospecting. The fourth article in this present TECHNICAL PUBLICATION is a further contribution to this branch of geophysical interpretation, and is a supplement to the paper in the 1929 volume, "Calculations in the Interpretation of Observations with .the Eötvös Torsion Balance." From the successful' demonstration by Dr. Barton of the usefulness of quan-

Jan 1, 1944

By Glenn R. Zellars, J. P. Morris

The carrier gas method was used to measure the vapor pressure of copper over liquid copper and Fe-Cu alloys. From these results, the activity of copper in the alloys was determined at 146°, 1550°, and 1600°C. Calculations of the activity of iron were made from the results for copper. The activities of copper and iron show strong positive deviations from Raoult's law. KNOWLEDGE of vapor pressures of liquid metals has both practical and theoretical value. Fuming of metal baths is directly related to vapor pressure, and the data should bc particularly important to the technology of vacuum metallurgy. Theoretical applications include determinations of heats of vaporization, heats of solution, and activity coefficients in alloys. Methods for measuring vapor pressures of metals have been reviewed by Speiser and Spretnak.' High-vacuum procedures, such as the Langmuir and Knudsen methods, have been used most widely in recent years. However, these methods are not applicable to vapor pressures greater than lo-' mm Hg and often cannot be used in the temperature range of greatest interest. The purpose of this investigation was to develop a procedure for measuring vapor pressures of pure metals and alloys that would be applicable to pressures greater than lo-' mm Hg. The transportation or carrier gas method has been used. Copper was chosen for the initial work because its vapor pressure has been established fairly well and the reliability of the technique could be ascertained. Applicability to alloys was studied by determining the vapor pressure of copper over liquid Fe-Cu alloys. Experimental Procedure The tests were carried out in a graphite-spiral resistance furnace. The charge consisted of 50 g of metal contajned in a covered sintered-alumina crucible 1/2 in. deep and 13/8 in. ID. Two sintered-alumina tubes led from outside the furnace to within the crucible, passing through close-fitting holes in the crucible cover and radiation shield. The arrangement of the crucible and the two alumina tubes is shown in Fig. 1. The small-bore tube (1/16 in. ID by 5/16 in. OD) served as the inlet for the carrier gas. The tip of this tube touched the metal surface and the flow of gas imparted a rippling motion to the metal. In this manner the gas was brought into close contact with the metal and became saturated with metal vapor. In most of the tests the flow rate of the carrier gas was 560 ml per min, measured at room temperature. Approximately half of this saturated gas was allowed to escape from the crucible through the second alumina tube (3/16 in. ID by 5/16 in. OD) and was discharged to the atmosphere through a

Jan 1, 1957

By Charles M. Rolker

THE Allouez Mine is situated in section 31, town 57, north of range 32 west, Michigan. The mine is being worked in a conglomerate bed, which conglomerate is generally conceded to be the continuation of the Albany and Boston conglomerate of Houghton County. Besides the well-known Calumet and Hecla with the adjoining Osceola, both working on the same bed, and the new location, the Seneca, now being tried on the Kearsarge conglomerate, the Allouez Mine is the only one working on a conglomerate bed. The Albany and Boston, in Houghton County, of which, as said before, the Allouez is supposed to be the continuation, shares with all the remaining conglomerate beds, near and around Portage Lake, the property of being non-quartziferous, while the conglomerates of Keweenaw County are all highly quartziferous in character. This change takes place, according to Professor Pumpelly, about six miles northeast of Portage Lake. The Allouez conglomerate, with a dip of 38° 15' and a general course of about 36° east of north, is overlaid by a trap, and has as its footwall an amygdaloid. The trap is followed by a series of amygdaloidal melaphyres and true amygdaloids, further on by the greenstone and ashbed ; towards the lake shore alternating traps and conglomerates are found. At the footwall of the Allouez conglomerate, an amygdaloid lies, the thickness of which is not known, which is also the case with the other formations, accurate surveys and geological researches of this district having, as I was informed, never been made. About 198 meters (650 feet), horizontally measured, from the Allouez conglomerate another amygdaloid bed can be traced, on which the present rockhouse stands, further on a melaphyre is exposed, and then follow the diverse conglomerates, the Calumet, the Kearsarge, and Kingston, which, according to the last geological report, are at about the re-

Jan 1, 1877

By E. F. Miller

The subject " Safe Timbering of Working Places in Mobile Loading" is one that requires an analytical study of the strata both above and below the coal seam as well as the characteristics of the coal seam itself. The projection or mining plan must be based on economic roof control in which the application of timber can be minimized without incurring cost increases in other phases of production. The several types of loading machines in common use today are not adaptable to the same projections or timbering systems. Consequently the type of equipment to be used must also be considered. For these reasons the writer does not believe that the problems of timbering in working places can be discussed without simultaneously considering economic production as well as the safety of men and the conservation of equipment. Prior to the introduction of loading machines as a substitute for the pick and shovel system of loading coal, the care and maintenance of the individual working places were generally the responsibility of the coal loaders who worked in them. Up to that time very few coal companies had developed and applied fixed and definite standards for timbering the working places in the mines they operated. It is common knowledge that mechanical loading of coal has had several false starts in the last twenty-five years and it is only in the last decade that it has developed to the stage at which we now find it. During this twenty-five year period the management of the more responsible companies have come to realize the tremendous importance of roof control in coal mining. From a safety viewpoint, the lack of roof control has been and still is responsible for more than a third of the industry's annual fatality experience. In recent years workmen's compensation and insurance rates have steadily increased while the profit margin has decreased almost to the point of elimination. From an economic operating viewpoint, the failure to properly control roof is quite often the most costly single phase of coal mining. Since the manufacturers of loading machine equipment have so improved their machines that normal care and maintenance can reduce to a minimum the time lost because of mechanical failure the production delays from other causes have assumed a far greater importance. Roof control in the broad sense and in the light of concentrated mining plans or projections that are adapted to mobile loading should be regarded as one of the major problems in the inseparable phases of production and safety of the workman and equipment at the working face. The subject of this paper cannot be treated properly unless what is said here is based upon the broad and fundamental problem of genera' roof control. The suc-cessful solution of a problem arising in any industry must have its origin in a complete analysis of the known facts or factors that pertain to it. The several illustrations

Jan 1, 1949

By James Herbert Bartlett

I desire, very briefly, to call the attention of the Institute to the iron trade of the Dominion of Canada. A wonderful development is now going on in Canada. The completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and the numerous extensions of the various railways all over the country, combined with the progress made in nearly every kind of manufacture, is drawing attention to the field offered in Canada for the profitable employment of capital, and specially to the opportunity there is for the manufacture of iron. In a paper presented to the Institute at the Halifax meeting,* the writer gave a review of the varions attempts to manufacture iron in Canada. The facts then presented were not such as to offer much encouragement to any one to embark in similar enterprises under the conditions then existing, but, happily, these conditions are now changed, and an early development may be anticipated. There are two reasons which make the present time an appropriate one to direct attention to the field offered for enterprise in this direction, the first being the very favorable reports of the experts who examined and reported on the exhibit of minerals at the Colonial and Indian exhibition, held in London, England, last year. The exhibits there of coal and iron attracted so much attention that at the request of the Iron and Steel Institute a paper on the " Ironmaking resources of our Colonies as illustrated by the Colonial and Indian Exhibition," was prepared and read at the last meeting of the Institute.? This report of 135 pages is very exhaustive, and the conclusion arrived at, so far as Canada is concerned, is, that she has in many parts of the country every natural facility for the manufacture of iron. The second and more important reason is the recent change in the Canadian customs tariff inaugurated in May last. The tariff is now generally two-thirds of the American tariff, in addition to which the Government, in order to encourage the manufacture of iron, grants a bounty upon pig-iron made in Canada out of Canadian ore.

Jan 1, 1888

By J. W. Galpin, V. L. Minear, F. C. Sturges, B. H. Mott, R. H. Allen, W. W. Weigel, Wm. D. Owsley, R. E. Moeller

By definition the word "grout" means a thin mortar, or a kind of plaster or ce¬ment, and "grouting" means to fill up or finish with grout. The words "cement," "plaster" and "mortar" mean a substance that is used in a soft state which subsequently hardens. Thus, grouting is the filling of void space with a substance that hardens. Construction cements are the most common substances used, either by themselves or in mixtures, but the term grouting is applied quite correctly when other substances such as plastics and certain chemicals are used. Also, the use of the term grouting to cover the filling of voids with materials that do not actually become hard, such as the-flotation tailings used in grouting in the southeast Missouri lead district, should be considered correct, as some stiffening does take place and, anyway, it is a better descriptive term than any substitute. Engineers are interested in grouting because some of the materials with which they must work contain voids, and certain conditions can be improved if these voids can be filled with something solid and permanent. Grouting is done to accomplish several purposes: I. To stop the passage of fluids and gases, 2. To cement materials together to make them stronger, and 3. To prevent consolidation of materials by filling void space with something solid as a replacement for the air and water that could be forced out under load. The construction industry uses grouting extensively for all three purposes. Grouting is used to stop water percolation under and around dams. It is used to control water flow in tunnel driving and in shaft sinking. It is used to improve foundation conditions under civil engineering structures by permanently filling void space and thereby reducing settlement, or by cementing broken rock together and increasing its supporting strength. The oil and gas industry does a lot of grouting, primarily to stop the passage of gases and fluids. The search for oil at increasingly greater depths has meant greater investment per well, and the oil industry has spent large sums on development of improved drilling methods. This

Jan 1, 1948

By C. W. Covington, H. C. Cook, J. F. Libsch

Sputtered aluminum thin films were prepared in each of two conventional bell-jar vacuum systems. One system utilized an inner "getter sputtering" enclosure; the second system was a standard diode sputterirlg arrangement. Consistent and repeatable film properties were obtained in both systems provided sufficient cleanup and presputter time was allowed. The various problems associated with aluminum sputtering are discussed, with pavticular attention to the vzinimization of film contamination by outgassing and oxidation. The growth and structure of the aluminum thin films were studied with the aid of electron wzicroscopy and related to deposition rate, substrate temperature, and film thickness. The resistivity of the films was correlated to film structure and surface roughness. Resistiuities as low as 3.5 microhm-cm (2.3 x bulk resistiuity) were measured for relatively thick films (20,000). THIS investigation was undertaken to explore the problems and film characteristics associated with the sputtering of aluminum. Earlier work reported on aluminum sputtering has stressed the contamination of both the cathode and film as well as abnormally low deposition rates.' Data on sputtering yields,3 however, indicate that aluminum sputtering could be practical. Recently, it was shown by Theuerer and Hauser3 that aluminum sputtering was feasible in a conventional oil-diffusion pumped vacuum system provided an inner "getter sputtering" enclosure was employed to minimize gaseous contamination. This technique employs the getter action of aluminum to produce extremely low reactive gas partial pressures in the deposition zone. Aluminum films have already found use in solid-state electronic devices such as transistors and integrated microcircuits. To the present time, most aluminum films have been prepared by evaporation due to the ease with which this metal can be evaporated. Controlled sputtering of aluminum offers a number of advantages over evaporation, however, such as 1) manufacturing compatibility with other metals which must be sputtered, 2) better control of process variables resulting in more repeatable and uniform films, 3) generally better adhesion resulting from higher-energy metal atoms, 4) built-in material supply for continuous operation, and 5) the ability to deposit alloys. The data presented in this paper are the result of two separate studies. One study utilized a small "getter sputtering" enclosure (System A) and was concerned with the structure and properties of thin aluminum films up to about 1600A thick. In this thickness range, study of the film structure was possible with transmission electron microscopy. The second study was conducted with a conventional diode sputtering apparatus (System B) and covered $ much wider range of film thickness up to about 34,000A. Emphasis was placed on developing techniques which would extend aluminum sputtering to an existing in-line continuous deposition process.4 I) EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE System A. Fig. 1 shows a schematic of the "getter sputtering" inner chamber used and Fig. 2 is a photograph of this chamber mounted on an 18-in. access ring of a standard liquid-nitrogen trapped bell-jar vacuum system. This chamber was designed after a similar system used by Theuerer and auser.3 The configuration allowed the glow to emanate in all directions from the cathode. Argon (99.99') was allowed to enter only at the top of the chamber such that most of the reactive gases entering with the argon were reacted with the aluminum vapor and deposited on the chilled walls of the chamber before reaching the deposition zone. Provision was also made as shown, Fig. 1, for heating and cooling the substrate from about 20" to 400°C. Two substrate materials were used: Corning 7059 glass (12 by 12 by 0.048 in.) and carbon films about

Jan 1, 1967

By B. Silliman

The regions of New Mexico referred to are in Socorro, Grant, and Dona Ana counties, and a portion of Lincoln County, embracing in the aggregate a very large area, of most of which our knowledge is as yet very fragmentary and superficial. It is only very recently that large portions of this region have been accessible. It has been full of danger from hostile bands of wandering Apaches, whose murderous raids have slain many adventurous miners and seriously prevented developments. But this evil has now been largely abated, and in many of the mining camp of this region there is no longer any danger from this cause. SOCORRO MINES. About three and a half miles back of the old Mexican town of Socorro, on the Rio Grande, chief town of the County of Socorro, are two or more large veins of heavy spar, cutting across the fat* of Socorro Mountain in a northeast and southwest direction, and dip ping at an angle of about forty degrees into the body of the mountain. These veins are in rhyolite, and, so far as could be seen in openings on the Torrence Mine, which I examined, are without any clay parting or selvage. The average thickness of the Torrence rein may be about five feet, the thickness varying from pne or two feet to thirteen feet. Upon the cleavage planes of the heavy spar occurs, in visible patches, of a waxy Iustre and gray color, silver chloride, which gives value to the vein, from a few ounces up to one hundred and twenty ounces to the ton, averaging about forty ounces, as I

Jan 1, 1882

By N. E. Rogen, N. J. Grant

AGE-hardening in nickel-chromium-titanium-aluminum alloys in the composition range characterized by the Nimonic alloys, is dependent upon the precipitation of the Ni3(AI,Ti) (y') phase.1 This phase is found to precipitate at about 700°C.1 Ni,Al is a face-centered-cubic ordered structure with a lattice parameter of 3.560 A. The atomic configuration is such that the aluminum atoms occupy the cube corners and nickel occupies the cube faces with titanium substituting for the aluminum preferentially. A maximum of three out of every five aluminum atoms can be replaced by titanium atoms in the -y 'phase.' When the solubility of the y'-phase is exceeded for titanium the T(Ni,Ti) phase is formed. The T-phase is an ordered close-packed hexagonal intermetallic structure which shows little solubility for the other elements in these alloys. The lattice parameter for T-phase is a - 2.5454 kr and c = 8.2900 kx units."

Jan 1, 1959

By W. J. Uren, Charles R. Kuzell

The industries engaged in winning minerals from the earth, because of their widespread dissemination, are faced with perhaps as wide a variety of labor-management problems as may be found in any other broad sphere of productive activity. Those problems are continually increasing in volume and complexity, and management has become aware of their growing importance. For the past quarter century at least, labor-management problems have largely been union-management problems. During this period tremendous assistance has been given labor unions through legislation and administrative and political action. In the United States, legislation favorable to unions has come about in the form of the now defunct National Industrial Recovery Act; the Wagner Act, most of which has been carried forward in the Taft-Hartley Act and the Landrum-Griffin Act; the Norris-La Guardia Act, the Wage and Hour Law, the Walsh-Healey Act, and others. The result has been to transfer from the hands of management to those who direct the affairs of the unions a large share of control over the industry and to hamper in many ways the remaining control left to management. In the United States there are many examples of the power of unions to injure whole industries seriously without regard to the interests of management, the employes, or the public. During 1958 and 1959 revelations of corruption and coercion in labor unions made before the McClellan Committee of the U. S. Senate generated considerable public sentiment in favor of legislation to protect the interests of employes and the public. However, the resulting legislation, the Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959 (Landrum-Griffin Act), demonstrated quite clearly that the political power of the labor union leaders was adequate to prevent adoption of effective measures in this field.

Jan 1, 1964

By George B. Clark

The "Munroe effect" of shaped explosive charges was discovered by Charles E. Munroe more than 50 years ago (in 1888), but it was not until World War II that it was put to any practical use. Both Allied and Axis armies used the principle effectively in bazooka projectiles, artillery projectiles and in fixed shaped charges. The first two were used primarily to combat tanks and other armor and the latter to assault pillboxes and other fixed concrete emplacements. Many engineers and others who saw the military application of the jet effect of shaped charges believed application would be possible in many industrial fields where blasting is used, such as mining and quarrying. Some work has already been done on the problem of making shaped charges applicable to mining operations. Experimentation conducted at the National Tunnel and Mines1 was directed primarily along the lines of use of shaped charges for secondary blasting in connection with long-hole stoping methods. Experimentation initiated earlier and conducted by the author2 at the University of Utah on a more scientific basis was directed at revealing the basic principles of the functioning of shaped charges, as well as the feasibility of using them in mining operations after the principles of their operation had been clearly defined. It was found that: (I) a given design of charge required an optimum standoff to make it most effective, either in penetrating solid rock or steel (see Fig 3); (2) for a given design of charge there exists an optimum ratio of charge diameter to charge height above which the increase in effectiveness of the charge decreases rapidly (see Figs 4 and 5); (3) partial confinenlent has the effect of making charge performance much more consistent; (4) the higher power and higher velocity explosives tested are much more effective than relatively low-strength explosives; and (5) shaped charges may be adaptable to mining operations in secondary breakage and drilling blasting holes. Fig I is a diagrammatic sketch of the action of a shaped charge for two types of cavities, while Fig 2 shows the approximate manner in which the jets are believed to be formed when an explosive wave encounters the cavity, approaching it from the top. The experimentation already completed has laid the foundation for further research in the study of shaped charges. Standoff effects, effect of the strength of explosives and other features have been fairly well established. Such elements in the design of shaped charges as (I) geometry of cavity liners, (2) relative horizontal dimensions of explosive column, (3) effect of various metals and alloys in cavity liners, (4) percentage studies of jet energies, and

Jan 1, 1949

By Paul D. Torrey

The water-flooding of oil sands has been widely practiced for many years in the Bradford and Allegany fields. Its effect upon the production of these fields has been almost phenomenal. In 1907 their estimated production was 3500 bbl. per day; in December, 1929, the combined production is estimated at 33,000 bbl. per day, an increase of almost 1000 per cent. in 22 years. This increase in production is directly attributable to the successful application of water-flooding, which has transformed the fields that were rapidly approaching abandonment into one of the most actively operated regions associated with the petroleum industry, and has made them important factors in the production of Pennsylvania Grade crude oil. The writer is indebted to many companies for information included in this paper. He is particularly grateful to the Sloan and Zook Co., the Petroleum Reclamation Co., George Bovaird, Jr., and the Associated Producers Co., of Bradford, Pa., who have generously made available much valuable data. Owing to the frequently competitive and confidential nature of property purchases, it has not always been possible to make specific reference to individual wells or properties; but wherever feasible, specific references have been made. Economic Factors The successful application of water-flooding for increasing the recovery of oil has been almost confined to the Bradford and Allegany fields. This has been due not only to legal restrictions in other fields and to very favorable sand conditions in the Bradford-Allegany region, but also to certain economic factors which are worthy of consideration. There has been some alarm regarding the effects of the rapidly increasing production upon the oil market but the writer is inclined to believe that future development can be made sufficiently flexible to meet the demand for this grade of oil. There has been a decided tendency toward consolidation of properties by mergers and purchases and, in addition, many of the individual producers are content to take advantage of floods advancing on their holdings from adjoining properties without developing their own on an intensive scale. Cooperative drilling along

Jan 1, 1930

By Guy N. Bjorge, A. J. M. Ross, S. J. Staple, J. D. Johnson, J. F. Wiggert

In recent years the Homestake mine has been served by three shafts, the B. &. M., the B. & M. No. 2 and the Ellison, supplemented by an inside shaft, the Milliken, extending from the 2000-ft. level to the 3200-ft. level. In 1932, when a new operating shaft was under consideration, the bottom of the mine was at the 3200-ft. level. The B. & M. and the B. & M. No. 2 shafts were down to the 1550-ft. level and the Ellison was being deepened from the 2600 to the 3200-ft. level. All ore was hoisted at the B. & M. and Ellison shafts. Levels below the 2600 level, which were under development only, were served by the Milliken shaft. Below the 1550-ft. level, the mine was served only by the Ellison shaft from the surface. Within a few years, when ore reserves above the 1550-ft. level would be depleted, operation would be limited to the Ellison shaft and the auxiliary underground shaft. The Ellison shaft alone was not adequate for hoisting the entire output from the deeper levels and also handling all men and supplies. Furthermore, assurance of safety and uninterrupted operation required two fully equipped shafts to the deeper levels. Therefore a new operating shaft was authorized in November, 1932, and was named for A. J. M. Ross, the mine superintendent. Plans for New Shaft The B. & M. shaft, begun in 1878 before much was known of the form and extent of the orebodies, was too near the ore and was endangered by ground movement. In 1924 this shaft was seriously threatened and sinking of the B. & M. No. 2 shaft, to supplant it, was begun. The latter was completed to the 1550-ft. level in 1928. In the meantime ground movement at the B. & M. shaft had practically stopped and, though loss of the shaft constantly threatened, ore hoisting was con-

Jan 1, 1937

By Arnold Hague

In the short time allotted to me* I can only hope to present to you a brief sketch of the main geological features of the country which you are about to visit. My remarks must, of necessity, be more or less incomplete, as my desire is not so much to elucidate any special problem connected with the many interesting geological questions to be found here, as rather to offer such a general view of the region as will enable you, during your five days' trip through the Park, to understand clearly something of its physical geography and geology. The Yellowstone Park is situated in the extreme northwestern portion of the Territory of Wyoming. Its boundaries, as determined by the original Act of Congress setting apart the Park, are very ill-defined. At the time of the enactment of the law establishing this national reservation, the region had been but little explored, and its relation to the physical features of the adjacent country was but little understood. Since that time, surveys have shown that only a narrow strip, about two miles in width, was situated in the Territory of Montana, but it was also found that a still narrower strip extended westward into the Territory of Idaho. The question of properly establishing the boundaries, -based upon our present knowledge of the country, is now before Congress, and an Act has already passed the Senate, proposing to make the northern boundary coincide with the boundary between Wyoming and Montana, and the western boundary coincide with the Wyoming and Idaho line. The Act under consideration extends the southern boundary of the Park to the 44th parallel of latitude, carrying the area of the reservation southward nine and one-half miles. The eastern boundary is made to coincide with the meridian of 109' 30') adding a strip of country about twenty-four and one-half miles in width along the entire eastern side of the Park.

Jan 1, 1888

By Guy Crane

I. INTRODUCTION THE geology of the Tintic mining district, fully treated, would occupy an elaborate monograph. This less comprehensive paper is devoted primarily to the occurrence and origin of the orebodies of the district, while space is given to those phases of the general geology only which seem necessary to a proper setting of such a discussion. The first geological report on the Tintic district to be issued was that by Tower and Smith, published in 1899, in the form of a paper in Part III of the Nineteenth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, and also as Folio No. 65, Geologic Atlas of the United States. About four years ago a second investigation was begun by Waldemar Lindgren and G. F. Loughlin, of the U. S. Geological Survey. With the exception of a paper on the oxidized zinc ores of the Tintic district by Mr. Loughlin, the results of their work are still unpublished. The writer's acquaintance with the district began in the fall, of 1913, and has extended over a period of about two years.

Jan 10, 1915

By J. J. Kramer, W. A. Tiller, G. F. Bolling

The solidification of poly crystalline zone-refined lead has been examined. A novel casting technique was used, with several advantages such as unidirectional heat flow, atmosphere control, and decanting of the liquid during any stage of growth. The experimental results show the separate existence of two textures, a (111) surface texture at the chill surface and a texture in the columnar zone, in the absence of conditions which would produce dendritic growth. WALTON and chalmers have most recently shown that the dendrite direction is the preferred axial orientation for the solidification of many metals in casting. Experimentally, for aluminum and lead, they showed that in the columnar zone the dendrite direction, <l00>, predominated, developing from an equiaxed chill cast layer that exhibited no preferred orientation. A reasonable description of the way in which grains closer to the dendrite orientation were able to encompass other grains was then set forth. For their materials, it was also shown that high superheats could inhibit a preferred axial orientation from developing, presumably by inhibiting dendrite growth. The observations of Rosenberg and iller, on the other hand, showed that zone-refined lead, cast under conditions similar to those of Walton and halmers,&apos; had a definite <111> texture in the columnar zone. However, no examination was made of the chill surface to find out if the columnar zone texture was independent of the orientations at the surface. Since the existence of preferred growth in Upure" lead is thus in doubt, a reexamination of the casting of zone-refined lead is presented here, using a novel casting technique. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES AND RESULTS Zone-refined lead was prepared from two starting materials;99.999+pct supplied by ASARCO, and 99.999pct supplied by COMINCO. The manner of zone-refining and the phenomenological tests for purity after refining, have been describedelsewhere.&apos; The casting apparatus is shown schematically in Fig. 1. The following general procedure was used: The metal was cut directly from the best parts of

Jan 1, 1963

By Edward Schuster

As THE time allotted is short, we can present only a general idea of the oil laws in the Latin-American republics, as a supplement to Bulletin 206 of the Department of the Interior compiled under the direction of J. W, Thompson of the Bureau of Mines and entitled "Petroleum Laws of All America." We shall not discuss the European colonies in Latin-America nor the island republics. As to the countries discussed, we shall attempt to give the main features of such special petroleum legislation as has been adopted prior to the early part of this year; where no special petroleum" laws exist, we must look to the mining codes for light on the petroleum policy. As the laws and regulations for the extraction of the metals are often difficult of application to, and are lacking in many essentials for, the petroleum industry, it is best for persons or companies desiring to enter, on . a large scale, into the petroleum exploration and development of countries not having special petroleum legislation, to obtain a concession contract from the executive of the country under consideration, and to have the concession approved by the congress. If this concession, which would then be a special law, contains nothing contrary to the constitution of that country and does not infringe on vested rights of third parties, it should be reasonably safe. If in such country there is some doubt as to whether the petroleum subsoil is owned by the nation or the private surface owner, only public lands should be covered with the concession. Guatemala is the only republic in the group that discriminates directly against foreigners. Bolivia, Ecuador, Mexico and Venezuela require waivers of diplomatic protection.1 Colombia requires foreigners to agree to be bound by its alien law. , In addition,Mexico makes it unlawful for foreigners to acquire direct ownership of real estate, including mines, within a zone of 50 km. along the coasts and one of 100 km. along its land

Jan 7, 1922

By B. W. Gandrud

WET-PROCESS coal-washing tables as we know them today have been in use in this country for approximately 25 years. The literature records only a few table installations worthy of note prior to adoption of the present-day differential-motion table. According to Phillips,&apos; six Campbell bumping tables were being operated by the St. Bernard Coal Co., Earlington, Ky., in 11893. As late as 1923, according to Richardson, 2 72 such tables were in operation in the Rosedale washery of the Cambria Steel Co., at Johnstown, Pa. Bumping tables probably were not used to any considerable extent except in the plant at Earlington, and at two or three plants in Pennsylvania, but they may be considered as forerunners of the present-day coal-washing table. The transition from bumping tables to the type of tables now in use signalized a revolutionary change in table design. The advantages of the new design over the old were so outstanding as to make its adoption inevitable. BUMPING TABLES Bumping tables, as the name implies, utilized a bumping action for conveying the refuse and discharging it over the refuse end. The tables were hung from rods attached to overhead supporting beams. A shaft and cam arrangement at one end of the table served as the actuating mechanism and imparted to the table an endwise, back-and-forth, swinging motion. A bumping block was fixed in the proper position at the shaft end, so that the table would strike against it at the end of each backward swing. The hanger rods or stirrups were so adjusted as to give the table a slight uphill slope toward the refuse end; that is, the end next to the driving mechanism. The feed box was near the upper end, of the table and designed to spread the mixture of coal and water over the width of the table. Wash water was added a short distance below the feed box with the table in motion and coal mixed with water being fed to it through the feed box, a certain amount of stratification took place, depositing heavy refuse at the bottom of the bed in contact with the surface of the table. Constant bumping and a certain amount of

Jan 1, 1943

By V.F. Marsters

Peru has produced petroleum since the early seventies, the first work being in the Zorritos field, in the Province of Tumbes, adjoining Ecuador. In the early nineties, the Negritos field, in the Department of Piura, came into prominence, and by 1905 had attained an annual production of 335,160 bbl. The early development of the field was under the general direction of the London & Pacific Petroleum Co., but it is now handled by the International Petroleum Co. In 1900 and 1901, the Lobitos field became the seene of marked activity. In 1905, its total production amounted to 75,000 bbl.; it has continued to increase, as has Negritos. From 1897 to 1902, there was prospecting in the region of La Brieta (or Fernandex), on the Mancora River, about 25 to 30 km. from the coast. Small production of a heavy oil was obtained from three different sands. So far as the author knows, no work has been done in that locality since 1902. There are thus four distinct fields in the north end of the Peruvian coasta1 plain. The remaining productive locality of Peru is the Pirin or Pusi field, at the northwest end of Lake Titicaca, Department of Puno, in southern Peru. The first prospecting near Pusi was done by Brown Brothers, of Los Angeles, Calif., who obtained modest production about 1906; according to reports, activities ceased about 1914 or 1915. The maximum annual production was obtained about 1908, estimated at 76,000 barrels. Peru possesses two distinct geographic provinces in which we may look for the development of a larger oil industry; namely, the coastal plain province, and the inter-Andean plains. Coastal Plain Province The coastal province is most prominently developed in the Province. of Tumbes and the Departments of Piura, and Lambayeque.l It 1 For details concerning the geology of this part of Peru, see Bol. No. 50, Cuerpo de Ingenirros de Minas "Informe preliminar sobre In Zona Petrolifera del Norte del Peru," par V. 1". Marsters.

Jan 1, 1923