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By R. M. Creamer

Attempts have been made to electroplate titanium and zirconium from aqueous, nonaqueous, and fused-salt electrolytes. Metals were produced only in fused-salt electrolytes, the major product being sponge metal. All other electrolytes gave only partial reduction of the metal ions. Fused alkali borate electrolytes containing titanium salts gave titanium boride powders and coatings of poor adherence. Some of the problems encountered in the deposition of these metals and some of the aspects of titanium and zirconium chemistry involved are discussed. INTRODUCTION Titanium and zirconium are both relatively light, noncorrosive metals with both military and civilian uses. This has led to intensive investigations into the metallurgy of these metals. Both metals are high in the Electrochemical Displacement Series and are difficult to prepare in a pure state. At present they are prepared by reducing their chlorides, using magnesium. Electrolytic reductions have resulted in the preparation of fine powders or sponge of variable quality. It is believed that a good process of electroplating these metals on a baser metal would result in a very desirable product. The objective of the research summarized in this report was to investigate methods of electrodepositing these metals, with the idea of producing uniform, coherent plates. Most of the work was concentrated on titanium, the more abundant of the two metals. A system developed for titanium should be applicable to zirconium owing to their chemical similarity. Information gained from these experiments may also be applicable to the electro-winning of the metal.

Jan 1, 1954

By Thomas M. Barczak

This report describes a study that examined load transfer mechanics in longwall shield supports as part of the Bureau of Mines research program to optimize support design and utilization. The objectives of this study were to determine the contribution of the leg cylinders and the caving shield-lemniscate assembly towards full shield vertical and hor-izontal load resistance capability and to determine how the interaction of these members affect overall shield response. Load-displacement characteristics of the leg cylinders and the caving shield-lemniscate assembly, independent of the full shield, were evaluated from controlled displacement tests in the Bureau's mine roof simulator and responses were compared with full shield responses to identify load transfer mechanics. It is concluded from this research that the participation of the caving shield-lemniscate assembly significantly affects the response of the shield support. It is likely that the caving shield-lemniscate assembly is not participating fully in current shield designs because of translational freedom in the numerous pin joints. It is also concluded that the shield will respond differently to different boundary condi-tions resulting from interaction with the strata. This report describes load transfer mechanics of shield supports and the implication of these research findings on shield design and utilization.

Jan 1, 1988

By C. Harry Benedict

This paper, describing the leaching practice at the Calumet and Hecla mills, Lake Linden, Mich., is one of a series on milling methods and costs being published by the United States Bureau of Mines. GENERAL DESCRIPTION The reclamation plant is located along the shores of Torch Lake at a slightly lower level than the concentrator itself. The entire location of the original concentrator, in connection with the present reclamation plant, has been ideal, lore particularly as the leaching and flotation departments are common to both units. After 15 years of operation and with the reclamation sands just a little more than half exhausted it would appear that the remaining life of the deposit could be worked by the present plan, without decided changes or renewals of plant or equipment.

Jan 1, 1930

By R. W. Huber

A consumable-electrode arc-melting furnace was constructed at the Bureau of Mines Physical Metallurgy Laboratory, College Park, Md., for the production of uncontaminated titanium and titanium-alloy ingots. The furnace was designed to allow for evacuating to very low pressures and back filling with helium and argon mixtures for melting at or near atmospheric pressure. Vacuum melting at a few millimeters pressure was also used with a mixture of helium and argon gas sweeping the crucible. For research purposes a 25- to 30-pound ingot, 4 inches in diameter by 15 inches in length, was selected to provide, enough 1/2-inch plate for extensive tensile and impact testing of standard size specimens. Enough plate was also provided for testing by other Government laboratories. The homogeneity of several alloy ingots was determined, and excellent results were obtained. By using a large electrode-to-ingot-area ratio and high currents or power inputs to the arc furnace rather uniform ingots were routinely prepared.

Jan 1, 1957

By Paul M. Tyler, Amy B. CLINTON

The four elements fluorine (F), chlorine (C1), bromine (Br), and iodine (I) form the most intimate family in the entire system of elements and are grouped under the name "halogens" or salt formers (by derivation from the Greek). The first member of this family, fluorine, is the most chemically active element known; and fluorspar, and to a less extent cryolite, the chief sources of fluorine, are important commercial minerals. Fluorine occurs in nature chiefly in combination with sodium as common salt, but it also appears in other natural compounds in sea water, salt-well brines, and bedded deposits. In addition to common salt, various compounds containing chlorine (chlorides) have long been consumed by industry on a large scale, and within the last two decades that element itself has come rapidly into prominence as one of the leading industrial chemicals. Bromine and iodine, the two retaining members of the family, are less abundant in nature and less readily isolated and in consequence of their relatively high price have found few industrial uses, being consumed chiefly in medicine and in photography. Bromine, however, is now entering the industrial field to a considerable extent, due to the rapidly growing use of ethylene dibromide in anti-knock compounds for gasoline. The present paper is devoted to bromine and iodine, but in order to compre- hend the physical and chemical characteristics of these two elements (and hence their potential economic significance) it is convenient to consider them as members of the family series to which they belong. The family relationship of the halogens is illustrated by the following:4 (1) The similarity in the chemical and physical properties of the elements and their corresponding compounds is such that the prop- erties of any one member of the family can be said to summarize or rather to typify the properties of all the other members, although fluorine diverges a little in some of its properties. (2) The gradual transition of chemical and physical properties is such that if the elementa are arranged in order F, Cl, Br, I the variation in any particular property in passing from fluorine to iodine nearly always proceeds in the same order, and that is the order of their atomic weight. Taxing almost any property and comparing its magnitude in passing from the element fluorine to iodine, or from the fluorides to the iodides, a similar graiation will be observed. Thus, take the melting point of the cadmium, calcium, barium, sodium, or potassium salts, in degrees.

Nov 1, 1930

Maps To Accompany Bulletin 494

Jan 1, 1950

By Oliver Bowles

The term" sandstone" is applied to a rock composed of mineral grains smaller than pebbles, cemented together more or less firmly. "Conglomerate" is the name given to a rock composed of pebbles, or pebbles and bowlders, of various sizes cemented together. If the pebbles are large and well rounded the rock is sometimes called " pudding stone." Although the term "sandstone" includes all varieties, certain specific terms are applied to types characterized by particular compositions, colors, or uses. "Quartzite" is a variety in which the individual grains are so firmly cemented together with quartz that the rock will fracture as easily through the grains as through the cement; "ferruginous sandstone" is one rich in iron as cementing material, or as grains, or both; "micaceous sandstone" is one in which mica is prominent; " arkose" is a feldspathic or granitic sandstone composed of angular grains; "calcareous sandstone" is one containing considerable calcium carbonate; and" argillaceous sandstone" is one containing considerable clay. The term "flagstone" is used for a rock that splits readily into sheets suitable for flagging; "freestone" for rock than can be cut or carved readily, and with equal ease in all directions; and" ganistel'," in the United States, for sandstone suitable for the manufacture of refractories. Others are named from their characteristic colors such as " bluestone," " redstone," or " brownstone."

Jan 1, 1917

By W. R. Crane

Subsidence and ground movement are phenomena common to and attendant upon practically all large-scale mining operations, and under certain conditions may occur in all workings, large and small. The interpretation of the cause of failure in rock masses involves a study of the nature of plants of weakness common to all rocks. The dominating planes of weakness can readily be determined by observation in any given locality, and in order of importance in the study of subsidence are (1) faulting planes, (2) bedding planes, (3) joint planes, and (4) other prominent planes of weakness such as thrust and shear planes and contacts. This report has mainly to do with the third item, joint planes, and is a preliminary statement which t to be followed by a more complete report in bulletin form.

Jan 1, 1931

By Michael J. Pazuchanics

This report documents the current status of the U.S. Bureau of Mines ongoing investigation of the use of adaptive signal discrimination (ASD) systems to distinguish between cutting coal and cutting rock. Cutting-tool forces and vibrations were measured in the laboratory using both conical bits and roller cutters in a linear-cutting apparatus for several material samples and two cutting directions. A number of ASD systems consisting of one or more signal classifiers were trained and tested to study how data window size, type of signal feature, and combining (polling) of classifier results influence system performance. The results show that ASD system recognition rates can be improved by increasing data window size, removing air-cutting portions from the signal data, overlapping data windows, and combining (fusing) information at various levels of ASD system operation.

Jan 1, 2010

By Joseph M. Singer

Ignition of hybrid coal dust - methane - air mixtures by hot- turbulent - pulsedgas jets was investigated . The turbulent jets were generated by explosions in a primary chamber of stoichiometric mixtures of methane , oxygen , and nitrogen . The hot - gas ignition apparatus provided an adjunct means of testing , on a small scale , the type of ignition that exists in large - scale galleries or in coal mines . = coal particle The temperature Ignition variables were channel diameter , channel length , size , fuel concentration , and temperature of the hot - gas jet . of the hot jet was varied by changing the oxygen indices ( OI ) of the primary explosion mixtures . Coal dust having approximately 37 percent volatile matter was used . 02 O2ટ + N₂ The hybrid coal dust - methane - air mixtures required higher jet temperatures ( higher oxygen indices ) for ignition than the single fuel component methane - air mixtures . Methane in air concentrations less than the lower flammable limit of methane could be ignited in the presence of coal dust if the jet temperatures were increased . A specific explosion transmission ( ignitability ) curve existed for each coal dust concentration . The total fuel concentrations at the lower limit of each ignition curve was always close to or greater than stoichiometric , indicating that not all the coal dust was involved in the ignition .

Jan 1, 1964

By B. P. Martinez

In response to a request from the President, the Department of the Interior joined with other agencies in a comprehensive study of the land and water resources of the New England-New York region. As part of this study, chemical engineers of the Bureau of Mines have visited 1,025 mineral-industries plants to inventory the waterborne wastes of mineral origin, discharged by the mineral industries of the New England-New York region. Four-hundred and sixty-two of these plants disposed their wastes to a public sewer of some type, but waste control remains a problem for moat of them. The 1,025 plants are discussed in main industry groups according to their production: Chemical and allied products. Stone, clay, and glass products. Iron and steel and their products (except machinery). Nonferrous metals and their products. Electrical machinery. Machinery (except electrical). Transportation equipment. Miscellaneous mineral industries.

Jan 1, 1956

By Robert M. Becker

Particle mixtures were sampled in the laboratory, using ordinary sampling procedures, to determine whether or not the compound-multinomial probability distribution and other developments of part 2 agreed with experimental results. The objective was accomplished by the Bureau of Mines by comparing the moments and moment relationships of the appropriate probability models with their corresponding experimental values over a fairly wide range. The overall agreement between the corresponding theoretical and experimental values is both good and complete. The results demonstrate that sampling to a constant amount, such as weight, of items per sample is not the same, in general, as sampling to some constant number of items per sample. The results seem to confirm all the developments of part 2 and the application of the compound-multinomial function to bulk sampling.

Jan 1, 1965

By E. A. Ziemba

The modified in-situ process is one of the methods being considered for extracting oil from oil shale. One of the questions to be answered for this approach is the environmental consequence of underground retort abandonment. This report outlines a study which addresses the question in terms of a grouting solution. It covers the development of a spent shale ash based grout which will fulfill the environmental requirements in terms of strength, stability, and impermeability. In addition, it will allow the reinjection of up to 50 percent of material mined and surface retorted as part of this process.

Jan 1, 1982

By R. V. Ramani

One area of study in the Coal Mine Injury Analysis project was to illustrate and enhance the ability of mine safety management personnel to apply analytical techniques to injury experience data and to justify requests for funds for safety enhancement actions on a cost/benefit and other quantitative basis. Four volumes of this final project report detail (1) the objectives and scope of the mine safety management research, (2) the results of literature review, and case studies, and (3) models developed for mine safety management. The four volumes are titled as Volume III: Mine Safety Management, Volume IV: Analytical Techniques for Mine Safety Management; Volume V: Mine Safety Management Case Studies and Volume IX: Training Cost Model. This volume deals with the development of a microcomputer based training cost model (TCM) which can be used to analyze training cost implications of various types of training. The model has been developed using Aston Tate's dBASE III plus language. The computer program and a test run of the model are presented in this report.

Jan 1, 1993

By Jacqueline H. Jansky

The Bureau of Mines conducted a study to determine the relation-ship between geologic features and linears. Cleats, kettlebottoms, and roof rolls were mapped and superimposed on the linear plots for a coal mine in West Virginia. No clear relationships were evident. This may be due, in part, to the mining practice of leaving head coal, which obscures geologic features that may exist in the roof. Future studies should concentrate on mines where roof is extensively exposed.

Jan 1, 1982

By WILLIAM F. McMURRAY, James O. Lewis

The Bureau of Mines is investigating the technology of petroleum and its products, the investigation including well-drilling methods and the transportation, treatment, and utilization of petroleum and of natural gas, with especial reference to the prevention of waste and to increased efficiencyin the development of oil and gas resources in land belonging to or controlled by the Government. During. the winter of 1912-13 the enormous waste of the gas encountered while drilling for oil in the Cushing field, Oklahoma, called forth protests from various sources, and appeal was made to the President of the United States and to the Secretary of the Interior in behalf of the landowner and of the public in general. The facts were wanted regarding the amount of waste and the technical conditions that were responsible for practices causing it. An investigation was ordered and conducted under the direct supervision of the late J. A. Holmes, the first Director of the Bureau of Mines. R. S.Blatchley was sent to investigate the amount of waste going on in the Mid-Continent flelds.s In the latter part of March, 1913, J. A. Pollard and A. G. Heggem were sent to Oklahoma to study well-drilling methods with reference to the waste of gas from wells on Indian lands and to suggest means of preventing the waste of natural gas on such lands. Pollard and Heggem decided that the mud-laden fluid process, which had been used successfully for some years in Texas, Louisiana, and California was the method that would meet the situation most efficiently and economically. The method was accordingly demonstrated in Oklahoma. In 1914 Congress provided for the employment of six oil and gas inspectors to supervise oil and gas mining operations on lands of the Five Civilized Tribes in Oklahoma and to conduct investigations with a view to the prevention of waste. Positions under this appropriation have been held by William F. McMurray, James O. Lewis, Harry D. Aggers, Ralph R. "Weed,George W. McPherson, James C. Fowler, Louis W. Courtney, and Carl H. Beal, the technical work of these men being directed "byW. A. Williams, chief of the petroleum division, Bureau of Mines. After careful and impartial investigation of conditions in Oklahoma, these men also decided that the mud-laden fluid process was the one best adapted to prevent further wastes. In 1915 laws were passed by the State of Oklahoma that provide for the conservation of natural gas and oil, authority being given to the corporation commission to make rules and regulations and to employ agents to enforce them. After hearings and investigations, the corporation commission reached substantially the same conclusions as the Federal agents regarding the importance of the wastes and the best methods of conserving the gas. Technical Papers 66a and 68b were published by the Bureau of Mines in December, 1913, and January, 1914, respectively. Technical Paper 66 deals with the mud-laden fluid process in general and No. 68 with its application in Oklahoma. The interest aroused by these publications has been so widespread that within two years the first editions have been practically exhausted. Rather than reprint these publications, it has been considered advisable to replace them with the present report, which includes the results of more recent investigations. The methods of using the mud-laden fluid are an outgrowth of the rotary drilling system, which was developed in Texas and later employed in Louisiana and California. Some of the principles of the use of mud fluid had been observed and used to a limited extent for a long time in cable-tool drilling. So far as known it was first used successfully with a circulator and cable tools in the Coalinga field, California, in 1906,Harry D. Aggers, one of the contributors to this paper, working on the well. The part of the Bureau of Mines has been to call attention to its merits and to demonstrate its practical use in fields like those of the Mid-Continent.

Jan 1, 1916

By S. E. Khalafalla

The Bureau of Mines has used colloidal solutions of magnetite in a magnetic field to segregate nonmagnetic materials such as nonferrous scrap metals and to concentrate precious minerals. Conventional magnetic separation relies on the inherent magnetic susceptibility of the material to be separated and may be designated as magnetic separation of the first kind the medium of separation rather than the separated particles are made magnetizable, a new system of gravity separation results. In this new magnetic separation of the second kind, a magnetic fluid rather than air or water acts as the separation medium. The same force that attracts magnetic objects in separations of the first kind also attracts the entire separation medium in separations of the second kind, thereby creating a reactionary force of equal magnitude in the opposite direction. This force, sometimes called the levitation force, can be made to segregate nonmagnetic particles in a flowing stream according to their specific gravity. The technique has been applied to segregate nonferrous metals from automobile and appliance shredders and mixed scraps. The system has also been used to upgrade diamondiferous jig concentrates from certain river gravels in order to facilitate the sorting and recovery of their diamond content.

Jan 1, 1981

By G. R. Peterson

The Bureau of Mines evaluated the potential supply of cobalt from known domestic resources, both as a primary product from some deposits and as a byproduct from others, and found that U.S. production could play an important role in meeting U.S. cobalt needs by the mid-1980's. This production would be of a relatively short duration, however, with production declining significantly before the year 2000. As part of the study, a tonnage-price relationship was developed indicating the quantity of cobalt that could be produced from known cobalt-bearing deposits at various primary commodity prices and at a 15-percent rate of return on the required capital investment. All capital and operating costs are calculated in August 1980 dollars, and commodity prices are based on August 1980 prices. Known U.S. cobalt-bearing deposits which represent the current U.S. cobalt reserve base contain some 310,800 metric tons of cobalt in slightly over 1 billion metric tons of demonstrated mineralized material. Approximately 37 percent of the cobalt contained in the reserve base is considered recoverable using existing technology. Of this quantity, some 87,000 metric tons of cobalt is economically recoverable assuming a cobalt price of $25 per pound, a copper price of $1 per pound, and a lead price of $0.40 per pound. Assuming that the cobalt price decreases to $15 per pound, keeping copper and lead prices constant, the quantity that is considered economically recoverable declines to some 45,700 metric tons. Domestic cobalt consumption in 1979 was 7,900 metric tons (17.4 million pounds). Currently, no primary cobalt is produced from domestic resources, and none has been produced since 1971.

Jan 1, 1981

By R. A. Cattell

With the surrender of the Japanese Imperial Government as a climax to the capitulation of the German High Command , the main objective of the Petroleum and Natural Gas Division pivoted from war assignments to its main normal functions . One of these functions is to give wide public distribution to valuable technical facts which the Division has obtained through research on petroleum , natural gas , helium , and related subjects . During the war years many engineering data and scientific facts could be released only on a restricted basis as reports to war agencies and others immediately concerned . Moreover , many of the wartime reports contained masses of detailed data that were prepared under stress to meet emergency schedules . For peacetime publication and application , these data must be reviewed , correlated , and rearranged so as to present the essentials in proper form . To illustrate , a wartime report of 50 pages might be resolved into one curve in a composite graph for a peacetime publication . Another factor affecting the orientation of the work of the Division is the broader horizon of research revealed by its war activities . Fundamental research and careful engineering analyses are just as important in time of peace as in time of war; in fact , they should be more important to the forward view , because under peace conditions disrupting influences that distract from the orderly acquisition of knowledge are minimized . Therefore , the concerted effort has been not to " salvage " the results of the war activities , but to evaluate them on the basis of their relative importance in the future economy of the country . Where wartime investigations have pointed to peacetime accomplishments , the effort has been to give the corresponding type of work additional emphasis . This adjustment can not be made hurriedly , but many of the necessary preliminary steps on the new course have been taken ..

Jun 1, 1949

By Raymond G. Travis

This paper, which describes mining methods and practices at the Hurricane Creek bauxite mine of Reynolds Mining Corp. in central Arkansas, is one of a series being prepared by the Bureau of Mines on mining methods, practices, and costs in various mining districts of the United States. The Hurricane Creek mine is in sec. 12, T. 2 S., R. 14 W., and sees. 7 and 18, T. 2 S., R. 13 W., Saline County, Ark., about 4 miles east of Bauxite. (See fig. 1.) Bauxite has been mined underground at the Hurricane Creek property since 1942. The operation is notable for relatively high recovery of bauxite under the adverse conditions of unconsolidated water-bearing overburden and unstable clay floor. Controlled caving, timbered stope walls, and efficient drainage systems on the surface and underground have minimized the problems and raised ore recovery about 25 percent above that formerly obtained.

Jan 1, 1961