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By Arthur H. Redfield

In estimating the unmined petroleum reserves of Central America, it is not feasible to employ the methods that have been worked out in thc oil fields of the United States. No producing wells have been brought in and no drilling sections have been made public. It is accordingly necessary to fall back on a crude "barrels per square mile" estimate. The method chosen is a comparison of the structure of the foreign field of unknown reserves with that of some supposedly analogous North American field of which the reserves have been estimated. This method makes no pretense at scientific accuracy, but furnishes a working basis for an estimate. The areal geology of Central America is illustrated in the inap prepared by Sapper and more recently in the geologic map of North America accompanying U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper No. 71, "Index to the stratigraphy of North America." Disregarding for the present the narrow Quaternary coastal plains and alluvial deposits of the river valleys, three chief zones may be distinguished. These arc: A zone of late eruptive and effusive rocks; a zone of highly folded prr-Cambrian(?) or early Paleozoic crystalline schists and slates, considerably intruded by pre-Tertiary plutonic rocks; and a zone of more or less folded sediments, chiefly of Cretaceous or Tertiary age. The zone of late eruptive and effusive rocks of Central America begins in southeastern Chiapas, Mexico, and extends, with increasing breadth, across southern Guatemala, across practically the whole of El Salvador, and across southern Honduras to the valley of Rio Goascorhn, where the igneous zone attains a width of about 100 mi. (160 km.) East of the Goascordn Valley late eruptives and effusives play a subordinate part, being confined largely to thc Departments of Valle and Choluteca. Dikes and sills of igneous rocks intrude the sedimentary formations of central and northern Honduras. Late igneous rocks cover about four-fifths of the area of Nicaragua. In Costa Rica, late igneous rocks form the diagonal ranges of the Sierra de Guanacaste and the Cordillma Central, and play a part in the upbnild-

Jan 1, 1923

By John Ryan

SIR HUMPHREY DAVY'S epoch-making treatise delivered on Nov. 9, 1815, before the Philosophical Society of London, first announced and demon¬strated a flame safety lamp for detecting methane in mine air. Coal mining was known in England as early as 1180, more than 600 years before the advent of a safe lighting and gas-detecting appliance. Mining, no doubt, took place first in outcrop coal, and danger from gas did not become apparent until the workings became deeper and more extensive. Davy's lamp did much to increase the safety of miners, and a modified Davy lamp is still widely used for detecting the presence and approximate amount of combustible gas in mine air. No factor in coal mining has improved more rapidly during the past 15 years than safety measures. This progress came about not only as a result of the work-men's compensation laws now in force in most of the states of the Union, but because the research work of the U. S. Bureau of Mines has demonstrated some dan¬gers incident to coal mining which were not considered to be serious matters prior to that time. Electric power and explosives are necessary but 1-potential hazards in American coal mines. A general mechanization program is now under way, while the mines are growing deeper and more extensive. Conse-quently ventilation problems are more complex and a demand has been created for positive detecting devices for carbon monoxide as well as methane. Scientists and manufacturers, working hand in hand during the past 10 years, have invented and developed appliances which make systematic and effective examination of mine air possible. The object of this paper is to describe briefly the approved testing devices in use today, with the hope that they may lead to the saving of life. Dangerous coal mine gases may be placed in two groups: (1) those that are dangerous because of their explosive properties, and (2) those that are dangerous because of their toxic properties. Methane (CHI) is the important gas of the first group, and in so-called gaseous mines constantly exudes from the coal and rock; it may accumulate and form an explosive mixture.

Jan 2, 1927

By P. Nicholls

PATENT records show that the attempt to improve the burning of fuel by mixture or pretreatment with chemicals dates back to the early years of the last century. By 1845 English and French patents had included the specific beneficiations of elimination or reduction of smoke, soot and clinker; reduction of the ashes; elimination of sulphur fumes; increase of the rate of burning; increase of the time a given charge of fuel would last; and, in most patents, a saving of fuel. The earlier patents specified additions up to 80 lb. or more per ton of fuel, but after 1860 the quantity was seldom more than 4 lb. There is no record of the extent to which these patents were commercialized, but after 1874 many American patents were assigned to companies specializing in treatment of coal, so it is probable that the products were marketed on a considerable scale at least as early as that date. From 1900 on, many proprietary products were marketed under the general name of "fuel savers," the principal sales being in small packages for the use of householders; savings of from 10 to 40 per cent of the coal were promised. Starting with 1927, the use of proprietary or other mixtures of chemicals was extended to power plants and to treatment of coals at the mines, the claims of saving of fuel being subordinated to those of general improvement and, in particular, to reduction of clinkering. Such expectations are attractive and a number of companies experi-mented with or adopted the practice. There were reports of improved operation, but, apparently, few were confident enough that these improvements were due to the salts to publish the results of tests or their records of operation. There are no data on the yearly tonnage of coal treated but indirect reports suggest that it has been relatively large. Since its establishment in 1910, the U. S. Bureau of Mines has con-tinually received inquiries about these products. At the request of. other governmental departments it made tests in 1910, 1916 and 1930, using certain proprietary products applied according to the instructions of the vendors; these tests were made with eastern coals in domestic and

Jan 1, 1937

STEPHEN TABER, Columbia, S. C. (communication to the Secretary?). -The fibrous salt crystals described by Dr. Branner are interesting, and I am glad that he has put this additional evidence on record. It confirms the results that I obtained in growing fibrous crystals in the laboratory. Much similar evidence of value to science in interpreting the laws of nature has doubtless been lost through failure to appreciate little things. Mr. Dresser points out that the boundary between chrysotile veins and massive serpentine is finely irregular 'when examined under the microscope. This fact I have observed in studying chrysotile veins and also, mode recently, in studying veins of fibrous calcite and fibrous gypsum. For the latter veins the statement holds true when the walls are of shale as well as when they are of the same material as the veins, but in no instance have I observed any evidence of replacement. The description of the vein walls given in my paper (pp. 1984 to 1985) was megascopic, not microscopic. The fact that chrysotile veins have sharply defined boundaries and are easily separated from the wall rock is evidenced by the small amount of waste adhering to the "crude asbestos" which has been shipped in such large quantities from some of the Canadian mines. Mr. Dresser has good ground for his statement that there seems to be no obvious reason why the term "mass fiber" should be restricted to anthophyllite. I have never examined the serpentine at the East Broughton mines; but in studying other serpentines under the microscope I have noted that much of the so-called "massive serpentine" is really finely fibrous (see pp. 1974 to 1975). The texture of such rock is, however, altogether different from that of mass-fiber anthophyllite, and I believe that the fibers have developed in a different way (see pp. 1981 and .1998). Mr. Graham raises certain objections on the ground that the laboratory production of fibrous crystals was limited to substances which go into solution with decrease in volume. Since my paper was written, however, I have succeeded in obtaining fibrous crystals of ammonium nitrate, a salt that dissolves with expansion in volume.

Jan 5, 1917

By J. G. Hall

Introduction When one thinks about world metal economics today, it seems to me he must go beyond the traditional factors such as exploration, discovery, economic feasibility of development, management, labor, and the application of technology. These elements have been and will continue to be very important, of course, in making available the resources that experts believe the world will require during the remainder of this century. There are, however, some new forces as well as new or different emphasis on some of the old factors that could materially affect the development of the world metal mining industries. For example, in my own company two of the most significant considerations affecting our economics today have to do with foreign political decisions and with environmental concerns here in the U. S. -both of which play a far more significant role in our economic considerations than they did as recently as 10 years ago. After a brief look at some historical data and some projections of probable future demands for the world's major metals, I shall then identify and comment upon some of the factors that I believe will have an increasing impact on the future of the economics of our industries. I do not have any magic solutions to the problems we will face; nevertheless, we in the mining industries of the world are going to have to cope with these matters and find satisfactory answers to the problems they will create. The Past Although the age in which we live has been described as the atomic age, the space age and the computer age, we are, in fact, living in a metals age, and we have lived in a metals age for a very long time. The discovery of copper smelting, for example, is placed at about 4000 B.C. Gold was used in a primitive way before that. Other metals - lead, silver, tin, iron and mercury - were discovered and used before 2000 B.C. In all probability, we will be dependent upon metals beyond the vision of anyone living today. In industrialized nations of the world, man's mode of living is based to a great extent on metals, and it is extremely unlikely

Jan 1, 1971

By L. Dudley Stamp

In my last report on Petroleum in Burma and India1, details were given of production and development up to 1932. It was pointed nut, that the only statements available for Burma were those published officially by' the Government of India in the Annual Review of the Mineral Production of India (Records of the Geological Survey of India), which are issued about 10 or 11 months after the close of the year. Operations in Burma are almost entirely in the hands of three companies—the Burmah Oil Co., the British Burmah Petroleum Co. (with its subsidiary, the Rangoon Oil Co.) and the Indo-Burma Petroleum Co.—and these companies preserve a policy of secrecy, so that details are not available of new wells, depth, wells abandoned, or of other figures, except in so far as the Government considers it advisable to publish the information in its possession. GeneRal Developments in 1933-1934 As predicted in 1933, there have been no spectacular developments and no new fields have been discovered. Nor are there any new indications of a likelihood of fresh discoveries. The policy of extremely careful exploitation. has been continued and intensified; production is being maintained at an almost steady level and can be so maintained for many years to come—indeed, it is the policy of the leading company to permit refinery and local market requirements to dictate the production required. Contrary to experience in practically every other part of the world, India has shown a slightly decreased demand for petroleum products—especially kerosene, but also for gasoline. The increased use of electricity would explain the lower demand for kerosene, but the falling off in the demand for gasolinc can only be attributed, according to the Chairman of the Burmah Oil Co., to the depression and to the incidence of heavy taxation. In India (including Burma) as a whole, production was 305,018,751 Imperial gallons in 1931 (8,714,822 U. S. barrels); 308,606,031 Imp. gal. in 1932; 306,009,022 in 1933 and is estimated at 308,000,000 in 1934.

Jan 1, 1935

By H. W. Camp

Although the situation in the oil industry during the past year has not been conducive to large expenditures for development and research, there is little indication that such expenditures have been curtailed. While few outstanding achievements have been reported, considerable progress has been made in the development of new product,s and the adaptation of petroleum derivatives to new uses. The most important question facing the refiner today is the antiknock quality of his gasoline. This year has seen the widespread adoption of the term "octane number" as a measure for anti-knock values, and in the latter months of the year the public has been made acutely aware of this condition through competitive advertising. Gasoline is no longer priced on volatility and gravity alone, but on octane number as well; and premiums are being paid for material of relatively high octane rating. The situation has grown more and more competitive and has forced refiners continually to raise the octane rating of their regular and competitive grades, and at this writing the same situation exists for premium grades which have possessed relatively high anti-knock properties for some time. Straight-run gasoline produced from paraffin-base or semiparaffin-base crudes has an inherently low anti-knock value, and in order to convert this material to a higher quality it has been found necessary to crack an increasing percentage of the crude oil charge. By completely cracking the heavier portions of the crude and blending back with the straight-run gasoline, it has been possible to produce an average of 63 to 65 octane number gasoline on average Mid-Continent crude. This operation carried to the fullest extent does not suffice, however, and the recent and rapid development of the so-called '(reforming unit," has resulted. The straight-run gasoline fraction is cut into two parts: a light, low boiling point gasoline; and a heavy gasoline or naphtha. The latter containing the low anti-knock portions of the gasoline, is sent through a re-forming unit and subjected either to high temperature or pressure, or both, which materially increases its octane number. On average Mid-Continent the blend of low boiling point straight-run,

Jan 1, 1932

By W. T. Turrall, D. Porter

The paper describes a machine developed for the purpose of concentrating clear optical grade fluorspar crystal from a feed material containing less than 1 pct impurities. The principle of concentration is based on the fact that in a liquid having an index of refraction equal to that of fluorite (n — 1.434) clear crystals are invisible, whereas crystals containing occluded impurities absorb a part of the light. As the crystals pass through a light beam, undesired crystals give themselves away by creating a shadow on a photoelectric receiver. .The shadow is converted by the photoelectric cell into an electric pulse. An electronic circuit amplifies this pulse and commands the operation of a mechanical concentrator. Hp HE crystal laboratory, Dept. of Physics, Massa--*- chusetts lnstitute of Technology, was confronted with the problem of obtaining a supply of optical grade calcium fluoride (CaF,) for use in growing synthetic CaF, crystals. A search of the known fluorspar deposits did not indicate that any quantity of optical spar could be obtained. Even the best material had to be sorted by hand to remove impurities. The process for growing CaF, crystals developed by Professor D. C. Stockbarger of the Dept. of Physics, M.I.T., necessitates very pure feed materials. Exclusion of impurities is required, even in amounts detectable only spectrographically. The impurities occurred as minute inclusions of SiO,, BaSO,, CaCO,, FeS2, water or air. Crystals up to 4 in. in diam and weighing several pounds are made by the Harshaw Chemical Co. in Cleveland. Since the time required to grow a 4-in. crystal is about one week, and since the cost of manufacture is high, removal of impurities by any concentration method appeared practical. The mineral engineering section of the Dept. of Metallurgy undertook to investigate the possibility of concentrating clear optical fluorspar, —4 mesh + 10 mesh, from a feed containing over 99 pct CaF,. Various innovations of the known methods of concentration were considered, but in each case the minute amount of impurities associated with the crystal produced such extremely small differences

Jan 1, 1953

By W. T. Turrall, D. Porter

The paper describes a machine developed for the purpose of concentrating clear optical grade fluorspar crystal from a feed material containing less than 1 pct impurities. The principle of concentration is based on the fact that in a liquid having an index of refraction equal to that of fluorite (n — 1.434) clear crystals are invisible, whereas crystals containing occluded impurities absorb a part of the light. As the crystals pass through a light beam, undesired crystals give themselves away by creating a shadow on a photoelectric receiver. .The shadow is converted by the photoelectric cell into an electric pulse. An electronic circuit amplifies this pulse and commands the operation of a mechanical concentrator. Hp HE crystal laboratory, Dept. of Physics, Massa--*- chusetts lnstitute of Technology, was confronted with the problem of obtaining a supply of optical grade calcium fluoride (CaF,) for use in growing synthetic CaF, crystals. A search of the known fluorspar deposits did not indicate that any quantity of optical spar could be obtained. Even the best material had to be sorted by hand to remove impurities. The process for growing CaF, crystals developed by Professor D. C. Stockbarger of the Dept. of Physics, M.I.T., necessitates very pure feed materials. Exclusion of impurities is required, even in amounts detectable only spectrographically. The impurities occurred as minute inclusions of SiO,, BaSO,, CaCO,, FeS2, water or air. Crystals up to 4 in. in diam and weighing several pounds are made by the Harshaw Chemical Co. in Cleveland. Since the time required to grow a 4-in. crystal is about one week, and since the cost of manufacture is high, removal of impurities by any concentration method appeared practical. The mineral engineering section of the Dept. of Metallurgy undertook to investigate the possibility of concentrating clear optical fluorspar, —4 mesh + 10 mesh, from a feed containing over 99 pct CaF,. Various innovations of the known methods of concentration were considered, but in each case the minute amount of impurities associated with the crystal produced such extremely small differences

Jan 1, 1953

By W. N. Best

THIS paper is not intended as a scientific discussion of the combustion of oil but is written from, the standpoint of an operator who has the experience and qualifications necessary to guide others in producing the most economic results in the use of liquid fuels. Oil, in this paper, usually, means petroleum or its products but incidental reference is made to other liquid and gaseous fuels, so that the term may be considered, as referring to all liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in comparison with solid fuels, as coal and. wood. However, only a few of the principal factors in the use of oil as a fuel can be given. The present, and prospective, high price of coal is causing users of fuel to renew inquiry as to the merits of other forms of fuel for industrial purposes. Crude oil (petroleum) is proving to be one of the world's most valuable mineral resources. The recent discovery that oil underlies a considerable area of the United States, Mexico, and other parts of the world to a greater extent than was formerly believed and the large production of some of the wells in these areas shows the probable quantity of fuel oil that may now be available. Through the energy of Lord Cowdrey, who was one of the pioneers of the oil industry in Mexico, oil has been discovered in England; some prominent geologists believe that it may be found yet, in quantity, in Great Britain. For years, oil has been known to be of great value in the manufacture of metals. It has proved incomparable in forge shops, steel foundries, heat-treating furnace s, and wherever accuracy of temperatures is essential, or where a maximum output is desired as well as quality of metal. In some types of equipment, the output produced with oil as fuel is double that obtained with coal and, at a reduction of 50 per cent, in the cost of the fuel. For example, in drop-forging plants, the metal is always waiting for the man when oil is used as fuel, whereas with coal, the man must wait for the metal to become sufficiently heated.

Jan 8, 1920

By E. Baker, David Donoghue

Legal and legislative matters constituted the outstanding features of proration in Texas in 1932. From East Texas emanated most of the political, legal, technical and industrial activity. Conroe and Thompson developed into fields of major importance. Proration orders were issued by the Railroad Commission on many of the producing fields of the Gulf Coast and West Texas not covered in previous years. In Yates, Penn Pool, Winkler, Van, the Panhandle, North Texas and West Central Texas there were 110 changes of importance, except in allowables. New proration schemes were introduced in East Texas, Conroe, Thompson, Saranosa, Government Wells, Tuleta and Howard-Glasscock. Little progress was made in administration or technical development. Legal and Legislative Matters Proration first began in Texas in 1927 as a voluntary attempt to divide the market outlet of a field on an equitable basis. The statutes then in existence were considered somewhat archaic and the Railroad Commission's authority was limited. Subsequent efforts to strengthen the laws were not wholly successful. The 1929 Conservation Act made no mention of market demand but declared that the term "waste" did not mean " economic waste." With the passage of the Pipc Line Act of 1930, providing for ratable purchasing, it was the opinion of many lawyere that a legal means of proration had been found. The 1931 law had ths same provision as that of 1929 with respect to economic waste but specifically prohibited limiting of production to market demand. The law passed Nov. 12, 1932, omitted reference to economic waste and specifically provided for limitation of production to reasonable market demand. Vigorous attacks were being made in State and Federal Courts on the constitutionality of the laws and the validity of the Commission's orders. In Peoples Petroleum Producers, Inc. et al. vs. Lon A. Smith et al., which had been heard before a three-judge U. S. District Court in Houston on May 28, 1932 and again on Sept. 19, the Court's decision for plaintiffs, released Oct. 2, influenced in a large measure the calling of the Legislature and the passage of the Market Demand Law on Nov. 12.

Jan 1, 1933

By Howard N. Eavenson

In many of the bituminous-coal districts of this country, more than one seam of workable coal exists, and in most cases the lower seam is the more attractive, owing to either its greater thickness or its superior quality. Apprehension that the mining of a seam will destroy the availability of all overlying seams has hindered the development of many fields and has led to the unprofitable working of certain seams in order to save them from an expected total loss. The U. S. Coal & Coke Co., Gary, W. Va., was the first operator in the Pocahontas field to mine the No. 4 seam extensively, which occurs about 80 ft. above No. 3, the scam that was worked first. This was due to the fact that over large areas the upper seam was the only one of workable thickness, at that time. In two places, both seams were workable in the same area, the No. 4 being thinner and containing more impurities than No. 3 seam. In mining these areas, an attempt was made to keep the workings in the upper seam in advance of those in the lower one, and no pillar robbing was done in No. 3 seam until after pillars in that part of the upper seam directly over it had been mined. This resulted in an excessive development in the lower seam, with large areas of finished rooms and standing pillars. The top fell badly, and after a couple of years the falls became so heavy that pillar drawing was unduly expensive. To overcome this obstacle and allow No. 3 seam to be worked in some territory where No. 4 was thick, but too dirty for present use, a study was made of operating methods applied to superimposed seams in Pennsylvania and Maryland. This was started more than seven yean ago by the writer; his data, supplemented by more recent information gathered by his associates, and by two cases mentioned in recent foreign publications, form the basis of this paper. Central Pennsylvania In central Pennsylvania, the lower coal measures contain several seams of nearly the same thickness but of varying quality, and as mining

Jan 1, 1923

By Howard N. Eavenson

In many of the bituminous-coal districts of this country, more than one seam of workable coal exists, and in most cases the lower seam is the more attractive, owing to either its greater thickness or its superior quality. Apprehension that the mining of a seam will destroy the availability of all overlying seams has hindered the development of many fields and has led to the unprofitable working of certain seams in order to save them from an expected total loss. The U. S. Coal & Coke Co., Gary, W. Va., was the first operator in the Pocahontas field to mine the No. 4 seam extensively, which occurs about 80 ft. above No. 3, the scam that was worked first. This was due to the fact that over large areas the upper seam was the only one of workable thickness, at that time. In two places, both seams were workable in the same area, the No. 4 being thinner and containing more impurities than No. 3 seam. In mining these areas, an attempt was made to keep the workings in the upper seam in advance of those in the lower one, and no pillar robbing was done in No. 3 seam until after pillars in that part of the upper seam directly over it had been mined. This resulted in an excessive development in the lower seam, with large areas of finished rooms and standing pillars. The top fell badly, and after a couple of years the falls became so heavy that pillar drawing was unduly expensive. To overcome this obstacle and allow No. 3 seam to be worked in some territory where No. 4 was thick, but too dirty for present use, a study was made of operating methods applied to superimposed seams in Pennsylvania and Maryland. This was started more than seven yean ago by the writer; his data, supplemented by more recent information gathered by his associates, and by two cases mentioned in recent foreign publications, form the basis of this paper. Central Pennsylvania In central Pennsylvania, the lower coal measures contain several seams of nearly the same thickness but of varying quality, and as mining

Jan 1, 1923

S. F. EMMONS, Washington, D. C.: Papers of Collins, Vogt, DeLaunay, etc.-Mr. Collins tells us about facts in the veins of Cornwall that suggest secondary sulphide-enrichment is highly interesting; and I am free to confess that I have not studied the literature of that region as fully as I should have done. Nevertheless, even if it had been as familiar to me as it is to Mr. Collins, I should probably have hesitated to draw theoretical conclusions without having seen the mines myself; for the personal equation and the point of view of the observer play, perhaps, a larger part in the study of ore-deposits than in that of any other natural phenomena. One important purpose of my paper, and its publication at the time of the Washington meeting, was to call forth remarks from other geologists upon deposits with which they were personally familiar, or to lead them to re-examine such deposits with the idea of secondary enrichment in mind. Mr. Collins's remarks on Rio Tinto, which he has the advantage of personally knowing, are also interesting. With regard, however, to his suggestion-advanced as an apparent argument against our theory-that the re-precipitation of copper from cupric sulphate solution by pyrite can hardly take place there, since it would upset the commercial process, I would remark that, while he is undoubtedly right as to the fact, it does not militate against the reduction and re-precipitation of cupric sulphate in veins; since on the surface, as at Rio Tinto, there is free access of air, and consequently an excess of ferric sulphate, whereas in depth the ferric sulphate would have been mostly reduced to ferrous sulphate, and (there being no excess of acid to hold it in solution) the small amount of copper in the presence of an excess of iron sulphide would be precipitated either as sulphide or as native copper. To Professor Vogt's analogous remarks, that in his experience sulphuric acid is formed only in subordinate amount in the attack of sulphides by ferric sulphate, I would say that Dr.

Jan 1, 1902

By T. S. Lovering

An economic geologist is concerned primarily with finding deposits of economic value, estimating their tenor and quantity, their shape and position. Thus the primary problems can largely be lumped under three headings: position, character and quantity; and all three are phases of the broader problem of genesis. Distribution, tenor and quantity are of immediate practical importance and are studied constantly by all who exploit mineral deposits. Although the emphasis changes from year to year, the problems of genesis seem more remote and rarely get the serious consideration from the field man that the other three do. Our understanding of the problems of the genesis of mineral deposits has come largely as a by-product of more evidently utilitarian work in the past, and probably will continue to grow in the same manner lor many years to come. However, it might be economically fruitful for the producers to have many competent investigators spending their time chiefly on the problems of genesis of mineral deposits. Many years ago, when first engaged in work for the United States Geological Survey in Colorado, I expressed a conviction which was just then dawning on me by saying that economic geology was turning out to be 80 per cent structural geology, to which Mr. B. S. Butler replied, "Yes, and more than 80 per cent of structural geology is lithology." At the present time there seems to be a widespread feeling among economic geologists that the problems of position or distribution are largely problems of structure and rock types. Types of Research Ptesearch in any branch of geology can be conveniently divided into two types: field research and laboratory research. Ideas are usually dug up in the field, pruned or developed in the laboratory, and taken back to the field for proving. For either the first or last step the field data should he as complete as possible, and the structural geology of nearly all our mineral deposits still needs more detailed delineation. In general, this means mapping on larger seales. Ideally the structural map should give a factual picture of a11 visible effects of stress; there is still room for vast improvement in the technique of presentation. Information that is much

Jan 1, 1940

By T. S. Lovering

An economic geologist is concerned primarily with finding deposits of economic value, estimating their tenor and quantity, their shape and position. Thus the primary problems can largely be lumped under three headings: position, character and quantity; and all three are phases of the broader problem of genesis. Distribution, tenor and quantity are of immediate practical importance and are studied constantly by all who exploit mineral deposits. Although the emphasis changes from year to year, the problems of genesis seem more remote and rarely get the serious consideration from the field man that the other three do. Our understanding of the problems of the genesis of mineral deposits has come largely as a by-product of more evidently utilitarian work in the past, and probably will continue to grow in the same manner lor many years to come. However, it might be economically fruitful for the producers to have many competent investigators spending their time chiefly on the problems of genesis of mineral deposits. Many years ago, when first engaged in work for the United States Geological Survey in Colorado, I expressed a conviction which was just then dawning on me by saying that economic geology was turning out to be 80 per cent structural geology, to which Mr. B. S. Butler replied, "Yes, and more than 80 per cent of structural geology is lithology." At the present time there seems to be a widespread feeling among economic geologists that the problems of position or distribution are largely problems of structure and rock types. Types of Research Ptesearch in any branch of geology can be conveniently divided into two types: field research and laboratory research. Ideas are usually dug up in the field, pruned or developed in the laboratory, and taken back to the field for proving. For either the first or last step the field data should he as complete as possible, and the structural geology of nearly all our mineral deposits still needs more detailed delineation. In general, this means mapping on larger seales. Ideally the structural map should give a factual picture of a11 visible effects of stress; there is still room for vast improvement in the technique of presentation. Information that is much

Jan 1, 1940

By Frank H. Kneeland

Safety First is a popular motto—most mining companies have adopted it. It is probable, however, that in the majority of cases it is only a motto and gets no further than the office stationery or the bulletin board at the mine's entrance. In but few industries is there employed a greater diversity of machinery and mechanical devices than in coal mining. The list ranges all the tray from mechanical stokers to wood-working machinery and undercutters. Many of these devices, particularly those employed in wood working, are extremely dangerous. In 1913,23 per cent. of all fatalities occurring in coal mining in the U. S. were caused by machinery of some sort or other. Although the forms of accidents occurring with mining machinery are legion, they generally arise from one or more of five causes: (a) Falls from ladders, platforms, etc.; (b) coming in contact with moving machines or parts thereof; (c) electric shocks; (d) failure of some machine part; (e) mismanipulation of valves, levers, switches or other hand-operated controlling devices. The steps which may be taken to prevent accidents from the above causes are almost as numerous as the accidents themselves. There is, and can be, no panacea for all mishaps, nor for any one class of accidents. There is no mathematical or other formula that will bring immunity under any set of conditions. Common sense is the only guide. The remedy for the first-named class of accidents is simple and generally effective—namely, make the staging, ladder, platform, or other support, abundantly strong to carry any possible weight that it may be called upon to bear; provide ample railings on platforms or runways, and non-slipping feet on movable ladders. Coming in contact with moving machine parts is one of the greatest dangers met with in the operation and maintenance of mining machinery. Unfortunately, machine manufacturers have not as a class adopted the idea of thoroughly protecting and incasing the dangerous parts of their product. No one has, or should have, a better or more thorough knowledge of what the dangerous parts or elements of a machine may be than its builder. The desire to construct a piece of mechanism as cheaply as

Jan 1, 1915

By James Kitson, Abram S. Hewitt

I HAVE now the duty—the very pleasant duty—to perform, of presenting to the Hon. Abram S. Hewitt the Bessemer gold medal for distinguished services to the iron and steel trade. When this matter was brought under consideration in London it was well known that, as Mr. Hewitt would be the first to acknowledge, there is more than one man in America upon whom we would gladly have cm ferred this distinction, and to whom this merit might be justly at tributed ; but Mr. Hewitt has been long known to our distinguished members on the other side of the Atlantic as one of the most active minds in the investigation of new methods of manufacture, and one of the most enterprising metallurgists on this side of the Atlantic. Well, gentlemen, we proposed to Mr. Hewitt that he should receive this gold medal, but I think it is quite right, and is his due, that I should state that he at once declined to receive it; and he declined in a manner which rendered it impossible to any one but very per sistent friends and very obstinate Englishmen to refuse. When we heard that our American friends had conferred once more upon Mr. Hewitt the distinction of President of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, and particularly with reference to our contem plated visit, and when we heard that he had been elected unani mously to that position, we felt that we had received the stamp of approval from this side. Gentlemen, as I said before, Mr. Hewitt has long been known to many of us in England as an advocate of scientific education. A report which he made of the metallurgical products at the Paris Exposition in 1867 was one of the matters which drew very clearly and distinctly the attention of the English iron and steel trade to the necessity of further improvement in our technical education as to iron and steel; and it was one of those beginnings which led ultimately to the foundation of the Iron and Steel Institute. The development of the ideas which 'he there investigated undoubtedly led

Jan 1, 1891

By Edward Keller

Although the subject matter contained in this paper is presented under a new title, its writing was induced by the work of S. Skowronski and K. W. McComas.' A discussion of the latter is here combined with the presentation of new and independent data. The' physical constants quoted by the authors of that paper, such as melting and boiling points, as also the chemical reactions of the substances involved, are so well established that the numerous confirmatory experiments and their application to metallurgical conditions leave little or no room for criticisms. On the contrary, they will greatly aid to dispel any lingering skepticism as to possible considerable losses of copper accruing when the metal is melted in the presence of its own and, probably, other chlorides and when no provision is made for the recovery of volatile products. Exception may be taken, to some degree, to that part of the work under the caption Melting Drillings of Copper Mixed with Sodium Chloride. These experiments should have been extended in order to make the implied reactions clear and the results convincing. The latter are stated to be, "that when sodium chloride is present above certain minimum quantity relative to copper some of it is found to volatilize in the melt while another part reacts with the metallic copper to produce the volatile cuprous chloride, and that when smaller quantities of sodium chloride are present the reaction is complete and all chlorine is found to have volatilized as cuprous chloride." Metallic copper and sodium chloride are mentioned as the sole reagents in this chemical process, acting, according to the authors, in a neutral atmosphere of carbon dioxide. The chemist, quite naturally, wi11 inquire into the formula according to which that reaction takes place and will find that it presents itself as follows: 2Cu + 2NaCl = 2Na + Cu2Cl2 It would appear that the truth of this formula will be challenged and a more rational explanation of the reaction sought. Apparently, carbon dioxide is neutral relative to metallic copper in its molten state; whether it remains neutral in the presence of sodium chloride is quite another

Jan 1, 1921

The Committee on Nominations begs to submit the following names as its nominees for the respective offices indicated: For President, SIDNEY J. JENNINGS, New York. For Vice-Presidents. C. W. GOODALE,* Butte, Mont.; MARK, L. REQUA, San Francisco. For Directors, J. E. JOHNSON, JR., New York; ALLEN H. ROGERS, Boston; HOWARD N. EAVENSON, West Virginia; ROBERT AI. RAYMOND, New York; WILLET G. MILLER, Canada. The nomination for President has attracted the attention of a large number of members, as is evidenced by the receipt of many hundreds of letters and postcards. Most of these favored either Sidney J. Jennings or Philip N. Moore, each of whom received many cordial endorsements. Such a wide interest on the part of the members is a very wholesome sign, but where there is so much activity it is natural to expect a certain amount of criticism. Some of the letters indicate that the authors feel that the nomination of President should be left entirely to the Committee on Nominations without any effort by the members at large to influence them. Others feel that the nominations are largely controlled by a small group and that the members at large can have little influence. As the result; of the experience of the last few months; a majority of the Committee on Nominations begs leave to suggest that the method of making nominations be changed so that two candidates, at least, for the various offices to be nominated, and suggests that the Directors appoint a committee to investigate this question thoroughly with. a view to making definite recommendations. In accordance with its opinion that the best interests of the Institute would be served by a change in the Constitution, allowing the nomination of two candidates, and in view of the fact that this Committee has no authority to make more than a single nomination for each office, considering the high standing of both Mr. Jennings and Mr. Moore and the large number of members favoring each of these gentlemen, this Committee respectfully suggests the desirability of ,the immediate nomination of Philip N. Moore by a petition of 25 members in accordance with the present Constitution. This Committee regrets, its inability to make two nominations. Respectfully submitted, S. W. MUDD, Chairman.

Jan 1, 1917