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Robert Carl Sticht, member of the Institute since 1886, an American metallurgist of world-wide reputation, died in St. Margaret's Hospital, Launceston, Tasmania, on April 30, 1922, after an illness of eleven months, against which he fought with the highest courage and characteristic fortitude. The news of his passing came as a great shock to a host of his friends and former associates here, but on account of his long absence from the United States, exact biographical details have been heretofore lacking. Throughout Tasmania, the expressions of public sorrow were many and impressive, and the flags were flown at half-mast in Queenstown, Zeehan, and the entire Mt. Lyell district, in honor of the man who had won his place in the community as a great captain of industry and a man universally admired and loved. Sticht had been connected with the Mt. Lyell Mining & Railway Co. in Tasmania throughout its entire productive period. He had originally been induced to go to Tasmania through the good offices of the late Dr. E. D. Peters, then professor of metallurgy at Harvard University, who after personally examining the undeveloped Mt. Lyell properties, recommended Sticht as the best possible man to work out the complex metallurgical problem which that great orebody presented. Sticht had already made himself the leading authority on pyritic smelting, having taken up the idea as suggested and partly worked out by Lawrence Austin and carried it through to a certain degree of perfection in the case of limited tonnages of special ores. After studying the situation at Mt. Lyell, Sticht found the conditions there to be almost ideal for pyritic smelting, and he had the courage to adopt as the basis for a permanent, and eventually successful, solution of the metallurgical problem, a process that was then little more than a theoretically interesting possibility. The thorough studies and remarkable results attained at Mt. Lyell were published as chapters in Doctor Peters' various publications on the metallurgy of copper, Doctor Peters giving full credit to Sticht for their authorship. These chapters by Sticht practically constitute the: best literature of the art of pyritic smelting. The accuracy of observation,

Jan 1, 1923

By Northcutt Ely

A year ago the petroleum code was in effect, and Congress had before it bills with powerful backing designed to extend and put on a permanent basis the Federal authority impliedly recognized in the petroleum code. Those men in the industry who were convinced of the unconstitutionality of Federal regulation, who believed in conservation, and who were seeking accomplishment of a conservation compact among the oil-producing states, were at that time encountering difficulties in bringing about such an agreement. Since then there has been a shift in the center of gravity. Today, by virtue of the Supreme Court's Schechter case decision, the petroleum code is not in existence, the industry is not operating under an oil administrator, and the Federal-control bills are not on Congress' calendar. In view of what the Supreme Court has said in the Schechter case and the Hoosac Mills case about the local character of mining and manufacturing, the problem today is not whether the Federal Government or the State Governments ought to regulate oil production, but how effective we can make the devices that are available to us under the constitution for the conservation of the nation's oil resources. The interstate oil conservation compact ratified during the past year by Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, New Mexico, Colorado and Illinois, approved by Congress, but not yet in effect in California, is the mechanism now at work. Interstate Oil Conservation Compact What is this interstate compact? The basic theory is simple and logical. It has four elements to it. The first point is that in order to effect the maximum recovery of our oil arid gas reserves it is necessary for some governmental authority to regulate the way in which those resources are taken out of the ground, so that the reservoir energy is efficiently used, and used equitably by the various owners of the pool. Second, that the state, as distinguished from the national government, possesses the police power necessary to protect the public interest and to protect the correlative rights of the common owners of the oil pool. Third, that the state governments ought to cooperate with each other through an interstate advisory commission so that orderly production in one state is

Jan 1, 1936

In March 1956 a conference on geochemical methods of prospecting for ore deposits was held in Moscow. This conference was the culmination of a ten-year period of extremely rapid increase in both research and routine application of geochemical prospecting methods in the USSR. This activity was divided among groups centered in extremely widely separated bases of operation, ranging from Moscow and Leningrad in the West, Yerevan in the Caucasus, and Alma-Ata in Central Asia to Chita near the Manchurian frontier in the Far-East. The All-Union Conference on Geochemical Methods of Prospecting for Ore Deposits, as the meeting was called, was the first opportunity for these scientists from many parts of the country to meet and exchange experiences. It also served to introduce members of the different research laboratories located in the city of Moscow itself, where adequate channels of technical communication had not yet been established. As a result of the Conference, it was resolved that a concerted effort should be made for the participants to publish the results of their work. Two books have appeared as a direct response to this resolution. I. I. Ginzburg prepared a synthesis of the field of geochemical prospecting for minerals based on the material presented at the Conference. This volume has been translated into English and is now available. In addition, the individual papers presented at the Conference were assembled into a symposium volume and published in 1957 under the editorship of V. I. Krasnikov. Unless otherwise noted, these two books have supplied the source material for the present appraisal of the status of geochemical prospecting in the USSR. It is thus about four to five years old. In the years following the conference, the literature has carried a substantial volume of technical papers, together with a few monographs pertaining to specialized aspects of geochemical prospecting.

Jan 6, 1960

By S. Atak, M. C. Fuerstenau

Clean quartz cannot be floated with a high molecular weight sulfonate as collector at any pH. Good flotation is achieved from pH 6 to 12 when Pb is added at low additions of sulfonate. The active species of lead responsible for flotation is shown to be Pb(OH), which in the presence of sulfonate forms precipitated lead-hydroxy-sulfonate, the apparent collector in these systems. The ratio of collector to metal ion addition is critical for flotation to be effected at a given value of pH. At low Pb++ additions, the constant, k, k = (hydroxyl activity)/(sulfonate addition)', must be equalled or exceeded for flotation to result. Similarly, at high additions of Pb ++, k1 = (hydroxyl activity)/(sulfonate addition) " must be exceeded. Previous work has shown that clean quartz cannot be floated at any pH with a high molecular weight sulfonate as collector.'" Flotation can be effected, however, when a polyvalent metal ion is added to the system in a pH region in which the metal ion is hydrolyzing to its first hydroxide complex. Although the basic phenomenon responsible for activation is apparently metal ion hydrolysis, the amount of collector added in relation to the amount of metal ion is critical. In fact, Schuhmann and Prakash,3 and Gaudin and Rizo-Patron4 have demonstrated that this ratio of collector addition to metal ion addition determines whether any flotation is possible at a particular value of pH. The object of this paper is to explain and quantify the relationship between collector and activator additions as a function of pH. For this work, Pb++ was selected as activator, and a high molecular weight sulfonate was chosen as collector. EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALS AND METHODS Sodium alkyl aryl sulfonate (mol wt 450) was used as collector. Reagent grade n-amyl alcohol was added as frother, and pH adjustments were made with KOH. Lead was added to the systems as the chloride salt. Conductivity water, made by passing distilled water through an ion exchange column, was used in the investigation. Quartz was prepared by leaching the sized sample

Jan 1, 1965

By P. C. Kapur

A principal first-order and a minor summation term contribute to the solution to the discretized batch-grinding equation when formulated in cumulative retained mode. Depending on the inter relations hips between the selection and breakage parameters, the minor term may be advantageously modified in a number of ways. The reduced grinding equations thus obtained are solved by iterations to give relatively simple solutions which are tested against experimental data. The irn-plications and advantages of the reduced grinding equations are briefly discussed. In many instances, the trajectory of the particle-size distribution in a batch mill may be extracted from a set of particle mass balance equations as follows

Jan 1, 1971

By J. C. Bayles

THE most unsatisfactory occurrences in the experience of a manufacturer are those from which he suffers damage and learns nothing useful. That there are such incidents, and that they occur with annoying frequency, is unfortunately true. An accident which can be understood and explained always carries some consolation with it. However bad the copnsequencee, one finds comfort in reflecting that they might have been worse, and that the knowledge of how to avert a more disastrous calamity from the same cause is worth what it cost. But when an accident occurs, which remains unexplained after anxious days of investigation and sleepless nights of reflection, and which is as liable to occur twice or twenty times, as once, very little satisfaction of any kind can be extracted from it by the most philosophical victim. Three such incidents have come under my notice in one establishment. Fortunately none of them were attended with very serious consequences, as no one was hurt, and the damage to property was slight; but in each instance, loss of life and great destruction were escaped by so narrow a margin as to make them extremely disquieting. I have recorded them in the hope, that from the experience of others maybe gained what my own careful investigations have failed to reach-—satisfactory explanations. The first of these curious occurrences was the bunting of a 16-inch pipe carrying air under a compression of about 1 pound. The pipe was made of light galvanized iron with soldered seams. Into it a rotary fan-blower delivered air, and from it smaller pipes were carried to the furnaces. The blower was run continuously. Neither the main pipe nor its branches had any connection with the gas conduits. Both air- and gas-pipes delivered into the furnaces; but although the gas was under much higher compression than the air, there appeared to be no good reason why, having free escape in case of leakage, it should ever make its way back into the air-pipe. One warm afternoon in June the main air-pipe exploded with great vio-

Jan 1, 1891

By Joseph Jensen, F. W. Hertel

Many fields have been zoned by nature with shales and intermediate waters between oil zones. Limitations thus imposed have been the basis on which a field was developed. In contrast thereto, in the Ventura Avenue field, nature proved more generous. Always expecting to find such similar limitations, operators drilled deeper and deeper into the oil zone without finding any distinctive shale bodies other than the Gosnell shale and only one intermediate water, which became the point below which the final water shut-off of each well was made. Thus, on top of the structure, about 3300 it. of oil-bearing zone has been penetrated below this intermediate water—a distance of 4000 ft. below the Gosnell shale. At first it seemed that the greater penetration in the zone, the better the well. The error of this assumption became evident as time passed. Other pressing attendant problems requiring consideration also developed. In the spring of 1929, the Associated Oil Co., still having a large undrilled area, adopted a method for developing this land by dividing the oil formation into zones, so as to drill two classes of wells and to prepare for others, if conditions in the future justified or required such action. Wells now completed are considered as permanent completions in the zone or class for which they are drilled, and are not looked on as a ready means for deepening or accepted as a temptation for deepening to get some flush production quickly. Provision has also been made to avoid future water problems. The most striking demonstration resulting from such work is the fact that the top of the structure is far from being the point at which the largest oil recovery is made. Wells on the flank of the structure invariably produce with lower gas-oil ratios and secure much larger oil production. Zoning of Oil Sands The Gosnell shale separates the upper light 50 gravity oil from the lower 30 gravity oil below. As the light oil zone is of practically no importance at present, it is not being exploited. The development pro-

Jan 1, 1931

By C. K. Leith

AT the outset I would like to make it clear that I do not enter this discussion in a controversial spirit, but in an attempt to contribute something helpful to an understanding of a difficult problem. I have too high regard for the sterling quality of the work of the men who have studied this subject in detail to offer anything in the way of essential contradiction to their statements of fact. Difference of opinion arises from differing valuation of the possible alternative hypothesis which these facts suggest. Some degree of recrystallization in limestone contact zones has been recognized by many investigators. Earlier investigators, for the most part, assigned an important, if not the most important, role to recrystallization in development of these zones. With the growing recognition, of introduction of ores and gangue materials into the contact zone from igneous rocks through the medium of primary magmatic solutions, there has been a tendency to ascribe to this process most, if not all, of the chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the contact zone. This has involved a correspondingly diminished emphasis on recrystallization of substances already there as a factor in the process, and in some cases even the complete elimination of this hypothesis. From detailed study of a few contacts, casual observation of others, and a general familiarity with the literature, some of us have been led in recent years to raise the question whether the pendulum has not swung too far away from recrystallization toward direct introduction from igneous sources, and to argue for more recognition of the part played by recrystallization.1 The inevitable sequence has been that those of us who have taken this view have been charged, at least by inference, with emphasizing recrys-tallization to, the total exclusion of the alternative process. Scientists, like other men, like to classify and pigeon-hole views under simple and definite designations, leaving out qualifications which would tend to make the classification more difficult to state. This has made the problem seem more definite and simple, but has tended to obscure the fact that the disagreement is primarily not one relating to essential facts, but one of

Jan 6, 1914

By I. R. Kramer

A study was made of the effect of surface-active agents an copper, gold, and zinc single crystals as well as polycrystalline aluminum. The study on coppw showed that the maximum effect of the surface -active agent occurred at the same concentration of the solution as that at which the rate of solution of the copper soap was the greatest. Surface -active agents did not affect the creep behavior of gold or freshly polished zinc specimens. The creel-, rate of zinc specimens in a solution containing a surface-active agent zoas always lower than that of freshly polished specimens. In previous papers1'2 it was reported that the surface played an important role in the plastic deformation of metals. By removing the surface layers of a crystal of aluminum by electrolytic polishing dur- ing tensile deformation, it was found that the slopes of Stages I, 11, and In were decreased and the extent of Stages I and I1 were increased when the rate of metal removal was increased. The results of the investigation of surface-active agents showed that changes in the slopes and extents of Stages I and II occurred when single crystals of aluminum were deformed in tension in a bath containing solutions of paraffin oil and stearic acid. The amount of change was a function of the concentration of stearic acid and the maximum effect occurred at a concentration of 0.002 mole per liter. These results were interpreted2 in terms of the rate of solution of metal soaps which form as a result of the chemical reaction between the surface-active agent and the metal. According to this interpretation, the "weakening" effect is controlled by the rate of solution of the soaps which depends upon the concentration of surface-active agents. At low concentrations, the number of metal soap molecules formed is low; at high concentrations, the rate of solubility is low, because of the high degree of saturation.

Jan 1, 1963

By R. S. Shoemaker, F. W. McQuiston

REFINERY SECURITY "Highgrading, " a polite word for stealing gold and silver, has been a way of life since the metals in native form have been mined or produced. Unfortunately, in the past, highgraders were not always severely prosecuted or even looked upon unfavorably in their communities. Recent high metal prices with attendent world wide publicity, however, has made highgrading or thievery again a serious problem in mines and plants. When a small button of gold the size of the end of ones little finger has a value equal to about one week's wages, the safe-guarding of gold production by enforcing tight security measures becomes a prime responsibility of management. The higher the gold price, coupled with unrestricted owner- ship, the greater the temptation to “get-your-cut”, and diligence by management must become an integral part of plant security. Primary security begins by knowing the expected gold production and the sampling of a gold ore mill feed for this determination has proved not reliable. However, solution flows can be accurately sampled and measured thereby closely predicting the gold recovered each day as precipitate. The progressive record of total ounces of gold contained in the precipitation press, referred to in cyanidation plants as I1solution calll1 predicts the accumulated production. The "callH is an important adjunct to security and extreme caution must be used so that the pregnant solution meter and sample are confined in a security area. It should be recognized that this key sample may be the target for Ifdoctoring" by trusted insiders (assay office employees) as a preliminary step for stealing precipitates and/or metal. Security measures similar to the following were adopted after one operation experienced a sizeable theft of gold precipitate and metal by trusted employees. The refinery area where precipitates are handled and melted to bullion and all other gold products are kept should be completely enclosed with a tight security fence preferably of solid construction. Access to this enclosure should be through one of two electrically controlled gates, one for personnel and another for occasional truck entrance. Admittance should be restricted to essential personnel who are required to sign a register in and out with the date and time. I£ there is a "back gate" to the restricted fenced area, it should remain locked except in an emergency and then opened only by a supervisor. Television monitoring cameras viewing the gate entrance and other sensitive areas connected to a viewing screen located in the general office afford visual observation at all times.

Jan 1, 1975

By Charles J. Moore

It seems a duty incumbent on the older members of the Institute to set forth in permanent form some of the results of their experience for the benefit of the younger members; this is the principal object of the present paper, which is the result of a recent examination requiring somewhat unusual geologic investigation. History. The London vein mas first discovered by float and occasional outcrops in the year 1873, four years before the great lead carbonate discoveries of Leadville, but the mine was not definitely located and opened until two years later, when the present locations, Mother, Paris, London, and Hard to Beat, were surveyed for patent. Since 1875 the London mine has been worked almost continuously until 1911, when the force was reduced to a few men only. In its early life the ore was assumed to be free-milling gold-quartz, although lead was a constituent of the vein throughout, and much useless expenditure was made in the erection and operation of a free-gold stamp-mill, with plates and tables for saving concentrates. The vein then opened was in the porphyry-limestone contact, a siliceous lead-ore, clearly most amenable to reduction by lead-smelter. The losses due to this process led in time to the close of the mill. For 20 years past, the mine has been worked under lease and the ore shipped to the lead-smelters in Denver or Salida. In January, 1912,I examined the mine to ascertain whether it was advisable to run a cross-cut tunnel some 4,200 ft. in length to intersect the main vein at a depth of 650 ft. below the present lowest workings. Finding a greatly-faulted zone, a close determination of the geological conditions became necessary to the solution of the problem.

Jan 1, 1914

By J. H. Frye, D. L. McElroy, E. E. Stansbury

The rates of growth of pearlite in high-purity Fe-C alloys have been measured as a function of the transformation temperature. These and other data have been correlated in terms of a derived rate equation. Activation energies for the growth were found to be 24,200 cal per mol of austenite for the 0.78 pct C alloy and 27,600 cal per mol for the 0.93 pct C alloy. Theoretical implications are discussed. AN excellent review of the the theoretical and experimental studies on the mechanism and kinetics of the eutectoid reaction has been presented recently by Mehl and Dube.' They have pointed out that these investigations have followed two lines of approach: 1—experimental studies and derivations of expressions for the overall transformation characteristics, and 2—derivation of expressions for the nucleation and growth rates in terms of fundamental processes. Investigations of the latter type have been concerned for the most part with the nature of the growth at the austenite-pearlite interface in plain carbon and alloy eutectoid steels. They discuss two theories of the rate of growth of pearlite from aus-tenite—those of Brandt and of Zener. Both derive rate equations which are based on the assumption that carbon diffusion is the controlling mechanism. Mehl and Dube,' Zener,2 and Brandts. " have attempted to calculate growth rates by use of these equations together with thermodynamic and diffusion data. The results are encouraging, but agreement is not so good as to constitute verification of the theories. Furthermore, it Is not clear how these equations are to be used to study the effect of alloying elements which apparently exert little influence on carbon diffusion, but markedly decrease growth rates. It is not clear whether or not the addition to iron of an alloying element which does not diffuse during transformation can alter the rate of growth of body-centered from face-centered cubic iron. That it can greatly decrease the overall transformation rate has

Jan 1, 1954

By W. L. Phillips

The recovery properties of compression-deformed lithium fluoride single crystals were investigated as a function of prior strain, annealing time, and annealing temperature. The recovery process was studied by observation of etch pits and birefringence stress patterns. The recovery process involved first a redistribution of the dislocations and then a decrease in their number. Only by annealing at high temperatures after small strains (<0.02 in. per in.) was it possible to obtain complete recovery of mechanical properties. LITHIUM fluoride affords unusual opportunities to extend the knowledge of deformation mechanisms of nonmetallic crystalline compounds. Single crystals of high purity are readily available. These crystals deform by slip on the (110) <110> system.&apos; Unlike those of several other ionic crystals, the stress-strain curves of annealed lithium fluoride are reproducible.2 Dislocations generated in the crystals during deformation can be revealed by etch pits.3 This fact makes possible more detailed studies of mechanisms than is usually the case with metals. Also, because lithium fluoride is transparent, it is possible to follow the recovery process with birefringence stress patterns. It has been shown that with metals an increase in temperature increases the amount of recovery for a given time, and the amount of recovery increases with increasing time at the same temperature.4-6 The yield stress has also been shown to be dependent on the rate of cooling after annealing.&apos; Annealing germanium, a covalent-bond material, at high temperatures after deformation redistributes the dislocations and reduces their number. The purpose of the present paper is to extend the knowledge of recovery properties to an ionic crystal, lithium fluoride. The effect of strain, time, and temperature of recovery on the stress-strain curve was investigated. The recovery process was followed by observations of etch pits and birefringence stress patterns. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Specimens measuring approximately 0.10 by 0,10 by 0.30 in. long were cleaved from a single bulk

Jan 1, 1961

By Richard Moldenke

So FAR as the quality of the product is concerned, the history of the production of pig iron for foundry purposes is one of constant retrogression. The steps in this deterioration began with cold-blast charcoal pig iron, then anthracite iron, coke iron; then gradually warm to hot-blast coke iron, with the charcoal furnaces also heating their blast to get greater tonnages, and finally the present day hot-blast coke irons with scrap additions to the ordinary burden that, according to one European report, have gone as high as 135 per cent. Parallel with this quality retrogression is the enormous increase in furnace tonnages from about 15 tons daily to over 1000 tons per day in exceptional instances of modern practice. The key to this situation is economic pressure. The effect is a growing differentiation between furnace production for gray iron and malleable foundries and for the production of commercial steel. As the foundry is often compelled to draw upon the pig irons made for steel purposes, for economic reasons, whereas the steel industry does not draw upon foundry pig irons proper, the situation is resolving itself into one of grave consequence for the life of the gray-iron castings industry, and hence the intensive present-day feeling in foundry circles for rigid specifications to govern the quality of pig irons sold for foundry use. In the discussion of a paper on the use of scrap in the blast furnace held recently in the Institute, a very pertinent remark was made by one of the participating furnacemen, who confessed that "the things found wrong by the foundryman with his iron were beyond his depth." It may be added that those things are also beyond the depth of most foundrymen who, however, know from their results that they are getting poorer castings today with many pig irons than they did with those same brands in former years. Under the former fracture buying, the foundryman at least could select the strongest metal, as judged by the sledge, from various brands of similar fracture and pig section, and his results proved the soundness of his conclusions. With the advent of iron analysis, and in spite of the growing uniformity of the metal through greater tonnage

Jan 2, 1927

By Northcutt Ely

A year ago the petroleum code was in effect, and Congress had before it bills with powerful backing designed to extend and put on a permanent basis the Federal authority impliedly recognized in the petroleum code. Those men in the industry who were convinced of the unconstitutionality of Federal regulation, who believed in conservation, and who were seeking accomplishment of a conservation compact among the oil-producing states, were at that time encountering difficulties in bringing about such an agreement. Since then there has been a shift in the center of gravity. Today, by virtue of the Supreme Court&apos;s Schechter case decision, the petroleum code is not in existence, the industry is not operating under an oil administrator, and the Federal-control bills are not on Congress&apos; calendar. In view of what the Supreme Court has said in the Schechter case and the Hoosac Mills case about the local character of mining and manufacturing, the problem today is not whether the Federal Government or the State Governments ought to regulate oil production, but how effective we can make the devices that are available to us under the constitution for the conservation of the nation&apos;s oil resources. The interstate oil conservation compact ratified during the past year by Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, New Mexico, Colorado and Illinois, approved by Congress, but not yet in effect in California, is the mechanism now at work. Interstate Oil Conservation Compact What is this interstate compact? The basic theory is simple and logical. It has four elements to it. The first point is that in order to effect the maximum recovery of our oil arid gas reserves it is necessary for some governmental authority to regulate the way in which those resources are taken out of the ground, so that the reservoir energy is efficiently used, and used equitably by the various owners of the pool. Second, that the state, as distinguished from the national government, possesses the police power necessary to protect the public interest and to protect the correlative rights of the common owners of the oil pool. Third, that the state governments ought to cooperate with each other through an interstate advisory commission so that orderly production in one state is

Jan 1, 1936

By Lee M. Morris

The Pittsburgh bed, lying at the base of the Monongahela series, is probably the most famous bituminous coal bed in the world; famous not only for the product yielded in mining, but also as a key horizon in the search for oil and gas. It is the most important coal bed in northern West Virginia from the standpoint of extent, thickness and regularity. The general section is shown in Fig. 1. Roof Strata The strata that superimpose any coal bed vary more than the coal itself, and the Pittsburgh bed is an excellent example of &apos;this fact. Obviously, there were several changes during the period of deposition of this overlying material. Locally, sandstone occurs above and in contact with the coal. Sometimes a shale, or a clayey shale, rests on the bed and is often overlain by sandstone. Throughout the greater portion of northern West Virginia, however, the basal member of the immediate roof is a black or gray clay, which is usually slickensided. This material is called "draw-slate" by the miner. The color is due to the carbonaceous matter and the slickenside is the result of pressure, or movement, which may have come during or subsequent to its consolidation. This part of the roof requires especial consideration, because it is not self-supporting after the coal has been removed from beneath. The roof coal, 8 to 24 in. thick, is left directly below the draw-slate to support it and also to protect the clay from changes in temperature and moisture in the air, thereby preventing disintegration. The clay or draw-slate quickly changes its physical character when exposed, and falls if it is not adequately supported. Timbers alone are not effective in holding up this material, because it softens, crumbles and falls around the supports. Timbers hold up only the material that is directly over the posts and crossbars. In Monongalia County In the northeastern part of Monongalia County, between the Monongahela and Cheat Rivers, sandstone is usually found immediately above

Jan 1, 1931

By S. W. Parr, A. R. Powell

FOUR general methods have been used in the study of the decomposition of coal. The first has been directed toward the processes of coal formation, the second has been by means of microscopic studies, the third from the data of destructive distillation, and the fourth has made use of various solvents. Applying these methods to the sulfur of coal, it has been found that the organic sulfur of plant and animal life enters into the formation of coal and remains in organic combination in the final product. The inorganic sulfur is almost entirely combined as iron pyrites and marcasite. The infiltration of hydrogen-sulfide waters is doubtless a large factor in these combinations. Sulfates are found in very small quantities except where free oxygen has entered the coal strata. The mechanical mixing of detritus with the early coal material is another source of sulfur. In this case the sulfur is distributed in microscopic particles throughout the mass. In destructive distillation, a part of the sulfur comes off as hydrogen sulfide and various thiophen compounds, but this furnishes little information as to the nature of the sulfur compounds in the coal itself. The use of solvents has given valuable data concerning the sulfur compounds in coal. Fremyl and later E. Guignet2 noted the action of alkaline solutions on coal after treatment with nitric acid and Anderson and Roberts3 showed the presence of large quantities of organic sulfur in the extract so obtained. In a study of the phenol extract of coal, Parr and Hadley4 found organic sulfur in the soluble organic material. These investigations proved the presence of organic sulfur in coal in addition to the inorganic forms, such as iron pyrites and sulfates. T. M. Drown6 attempted the analysis of the pyritic and sulfate sulfur as distinct from the organic forms by means of sodium hypobromite; no definite proof of

Jan 1, 1920

By E. J. Schmitz

This novel safety-lamp, which was first introduced in some of the German coal-mines in 1882, at once attracted general attention in the coal-districts of Europe. Objections which arose during the early stages of its use at the mines have gradually died away with the increase of experience in handling the lamp 011 the part of the miners, and the continual efforts to perfect it on the part of its inventors. Wolf&apos;s lamp has rapidly surpassed all its rivals, and has already a greater distribution on the Continent than any one of its older sisters. In the course of two and a half years, the manufacturers have sold 25,000 of the lamps, besides remodelling several thousand rapeseed-oil lamps. This great success, which of itself speaks loudly enough as to the superiority of the Wolf benzine-lamp, is corroborated by both official and private reports, which all agree in pronouncing this lamp the best yet brought forward. It was described in a paper by Mr. Eugene B. Wilson, read at the Chicago meeting of the Institute, in May, 1881,* in which its salient merits were briefly but clearly indicated. Every previous improvement of the original Davy lamp has been directed to one or more of the following main points: 1. Light of greater and more uniform intensity. 2. Freedom from smoke or soot, which clogs the gauze and other parts of the lamp. 3. A greater safety and sensitiveness in the presence of firedamp. 4. An illuminating material which, satisfying the foregoing conditions, should be also cheap. 5. A lock which could not be opened in the mine by the miner. 6. An arrangement for lighting without opening the lamp. 7. An arrangement for changing the size of the flame in the closed lamp, to supersede the picker, the danger from which is explained in Mr. Wilson&apos;s paper, already cited. It may safely be said that wolf&apos;s lamp was the first to secure all these objects. The adoption of benzine instead of rapeseed-oil (previonsly the best illuminant) has completely satisfied conditions 1, 2, 3, and 4. Benzine gives a much clearer, stronger, and more uni-

Jan 1, 1886

By J. C. Bayles

It is seldom the privilege of one who contributes to the Transactions of a technical society, to describe a new industry in which, by processes employed for the first time, are attained results of conspicuous value. There are but few such patches of virgin soil worth the tilling, within the area circumscribed by the industries which have experienced a regular and uniform development. New and startling methods in production are often announced as about to be introduced; but, as a rule, they take their place among the " large desires with most uncertain issues," or give new significance to the historic words of an eminent statesman concerning " the bright beginnings and the bitter end of a halcyon and vociferous proceeding." In this paper I shall have the pleasure of briefly describing a new industry which has been established without announcement or proclamation — the manufacture of serviceable pressure pipes of great strength, from strips of steel or iron wound spirally, heated only along the overlapping edges, welded by hammering and finished into tubes of uniform diameter, and of such length as mag be found convenient in handling and transportation. As such tubes are now manufactured on a considerable scale, in a range of sizes which will soon include everything between 4 inches and 30 inches, and as much larger as may be needed, both process and product are likely to be of interest to engineers in all departments of professional work. The raw material of the industry is the ordinary sheet-iron or steel of commerce, of such lengths and widths as it is convenient to roll. The range of the ganges of the metal which can be employed has riot yet been determined. The lightest metal thus far successfully made into pipe is No. 29 iron, and the heaviest a steel gauging somewhere between 12 and 14. Heavier machines are now building which will bend steel .165 of an inch in thickness, or No. 8 of&apos; the Birmingham gauge. Probably No. 20 or No. 22 will be the lightest used in making commercial pipes; hut the experiment with No. 29 was interesting as showing the readiness with which the flame can be controlled. To get a welding heat with such thin

Jan 1, 1888

By Terje Preber

Undisturbed sampling of shale has always been difficult. As pert of a comprehensive subsurface investigation for a nuclear power plant in northwestern Illinois, the Maquoketa shale, which contains seams of argillaceous dolomite, was sampled using different coring techniques. Since the Maquoketa shale is extremely fissile, careful sampling preservation by both lateral and vertical confining was utilized. The samples were tested to determine both static and dynamic properties. A relationship between void ratio and compression index, swell index, and swell pressure ratio was established. Correlation was found between the dynamic properties and both undrained shear strength and confining stress. Based on the results of the sampling and testing programs, recommendations for sampling and sample preservation techniques are given. INTRODUCTION Undisturbed sampling and preservation of samples of weathered, fiasile shale is often a very difficult task. The often erratically varying degree of weathering with depth complicates sampling and makes reproducibility of testing results difficult. Therefore, the testing of weak, weathered rock very often yields a wide variety of test results with large data scatter. The reproducibility of teat results usually associated with water-deposited soils is seldom, if ever, obtained. The testing and sampling program described in this paper was part of a comprehensive subsurface investigation for a nuclear power plant in northwestern Illinois. The sampling, preservation and testing program of shale samples taken from the Maquoketa shale are described, and, in particular, the different sampling techniques and sample preservation procedures are evaluated with respect to their effectiveness. The samples obtained by these procedures were subjected to a comprehensive testing program, including both static and dynamic testing in order to provide input for soil-structure interaction analysis. GEOLOGY The Maquoketa Shale Group is of Ordovician age and is part of the Cincinnatian Series. The area where the shale samples were taken was in a broad sea far from sources of clastic sediments during most of Ordovician time. However, during Cincinnatian time when large deltas in the Appalachian region were being formed, clastic sediments from the east dominated the sedimentation ii. Illinois, resulting in formation of the shale and dolomite shales of the Maquoketa Shale Group (Willman et al., 1975). The geologic unit sampled consists of a greenish gray to gray silty shale containing numerous 1- to 12-inch (2.5- to 30.5-cm) thick interbeds of argillaceous dolomite. The dolomite comprises up to 40 percent of the profile studied. The shale

Jan 1, 1984