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THERE was presented for discussion at the February (1924) meeting of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers a report of a committee named by the United States Bureau of Mines on the Use of Oxygen or Oxygenated Air in Metallurgy and Allied Processes. An extensive discussion followed the presentation of the papers, which dealt with the matter entirely from a theoretical standpoint. The results of only a limited, amount of research work were presented and discussion centered around the question: "Is it worth while to carry on research and expend money in determining what can be done in metallurgical operations if cheap oxygen can be produced?" More experimental work on this subject has not been done because metallurgists have not thought that cheap oxygen could be produced, thinking "Why waste time experimenting. with a reagent that cannot be procurable in commercial quantities?" While the producers of oxygen have said " Why waste money on the development of a process to make cheap oxygen unless we know that there will be a market for it when produced?" The discussion brought out two facts: First, many metallurgists believe that their operations can be conducted more economically if they can add oxygen to the air used in various smelting operations; second, a number of chemists believe that relatively pure oxygen can be produced in metallurgical quantities at very small cost. Negative views were expressed to both propositions, but so overwhelming was the view that if cheap oxygen could be produced, many metallurgical operations would benefit that it was voted to recommend that the Bureau of Mines continue its research work, pending the production of the cheap oxygen hoped for. Few experimental data being available, and the attitude of disputants being based largely on theoretical considerations or on reactions and temperatures incapable of positive proof, it has been decided to publish only a summary of the papers and discussions arising from their presentations. It is believed, however, that this will be sufficient to show the lines of reasoning that have been adopted, and be a guide to others who are to make their own calculations or engage in experimental work.

Jan 11, 1924

By Newell G. Alford

At its meeting in the fall of 1937, the Executive Committee of the Coal Division considered the growing scarcity of young engineers entering coal mining with serious intentions. This scarcity was the cause of considerable alarm and a committee consisting of C. T. Hayden, E. A. Holbrook, C. E. Lawall and L. E. Young, with the writer as chairman, was appointed to gather factual data on the current trend. A questionnaire1 was designed and mailed to the heads of the 60 mineral technology schools listed by Prof. W. B. Plank in his article in September 1937.2 Replies were received from 46 institutions, not all from heads of coal-mining courses but all from men that at one time or another have had experience with some kind of coal-mining curricula and know current student impressions. Our committee is indebted to all of these gentlemen for their cooperation. Our committee hoped by this means to quickly reach the root of the trouble and make a set of comprehensive recommendations to the Coal Division for relieving the industry immediately from the growing dearth of youth who yearn for coal-mining careers, but the condition is more serious than at first diagnosed. We must now refer the question back to the Coal Division, with the recommendation that the Division get the industry's permission for still another major operation on its frame of mind. In addition to 10-year statistics on the first pay received by graduates in coal mining and other technical work, we requested enrollment data for 20 years from all schools with either mining engineering or mineral technology curricula. Nine leading questions were also plied, as shown in the Appendix. Every one of the answers was significant and interesting. Fortunately, we encountered positive frankness that was extremely helpful.

Jan 1, 1938

By R. R. Hart, B. C. Wonsiewicz, G. Y. Chin

In recent years there has been increased miniaturization of electromechanical devices to keep pace with current trends toward smaller electronic components. A major problem facing the designer, however, is the higher stresses encountered by the material as a result of shorter springs. Hence an improvement in the elastic limit, as approximated by the 0.01 pct offset yield strength, would be highly desirable. An increase of 25 pct in the yield strength, for example, will permit a 20 pct reduction in both the length and thickness of a cantilever-type spring while maintaining the same compliance. One technique of improving the yield strength that has received little commercial attention is crystal-lographic texture strengthening.1,2 Texture strengthening is expected to be most beneficial in materials of hcp structure, but considerable gain can also be expected in cubic materials. A wire with a (111) fiber texture, for example, is expected to be 20 pct stronger than randomly oriented material, and 50 pct stronger than wire with a (100) fiber texture.293 For sheet specimens with a {110}(112) texture, characteristic of many heavily rolled fcc alloys, the (111) transverse direction is expected to be the maximum yield strength direction, about 20 pct higher than that in the (112) rolling direction.' In addition, the (111) direction is the direction of maximum modulus of elasticity for most cubic alloys. A large value of the elastic modulus could be desirable in designs where stiffer springs are required. To test the above idea, a 0.090 in. (-2.3 mm) thick commercial grade A (5 pct Sn) phosphor bronze sheet, a widely-used material for relay springs, was rolled from the spring-tempered condition (60.5 pct reduction) to various additional reductions up to a total reduction of 95 pct. Subsequently, additional material was obtained with a total thickness reduction of 97.3 pct Standard tensile specimens were prepared from the sheet material with the tensile axis parallel to and at 90 deg to the rolling direction. Tests were run on an Instron testing machine at a strain rate of about 0.050 min-l. Textures were determined by the use of the reflection pole-figure technique. Data were obtained using nickel-filtered CuKa radiation and with the aid of a Siemens pole figure goniometer. The X-ray pole figure studies show an incrzasing development of the texture toward the {110}(112) ideal

Jan 1, 1970

By H. E. Williams

In view of the frequent occurrence of petroleum in other parts of the world, it seems odd that so large an area as is contained within the borders of Brazil should be without this product. This apparent deficiency may be due, however, to our ignorance of the regions in which it may exist. In some places, indications point to the probable existence of petroleum in ages gone by; and while the presence of petroleum pools may be problematic, in several regions conditions not unfavorable to their occurrence exist. Yet, Brazil has enormous oil resources in the rich oil-shales in different parts of the country. Many of these shales are very rich and only suitable processes for the extraction of the oil are lacking. At the present time, only a few small experimental plants are producing oil by distillation from these shales. These plants have been the subject of recent investigations by the Geological and Mineralogical Survey, a preliminary report of which is in the hands of the printer. The only regions where studies have not been made are the upper Amazon, the Acre, the Rio Negro, and the Peruvian frontier, which really seems to be the most promising field for explorations of any in the country. In the vast plateau region of the interior north of the 20th parallel of latitude, granites, gneiss, mica schists, and very old metamorphosed sedimentaries predominate. Later, sedimentaries occupy a minor position and, where found in the interior, represent a thin veneering resting on the older rocks. At several places near the coast they have a greater development and contain considerable beds of oil-shale and may, .in some cases, offer conditions favorable for the occurrence of oil. Such deposits are found in the Permian rocks of central and southern Maran-hao; in the Tertiary and Cretaceous beds along the coast of Alagsas Sergipe, Bahia, and perhaps farther south in Espirito Santo; and in the Parahyba embayment north of Cape Frio and in the interior Tertiary basin of eastern Sao Paulo.

Jan 1, 1921

By F. E. Bash

WHENEVER electric and open-hearth steel men discuss the relative advantages of their respective methods, the question of temperature is always discussed, so that this paper is written in the hope that definite data may settle some of the questions and encourage further investigations along these lilies. The writer has had the opportunity of taking the tapping temperatures of steel from electric furnaces of different sizes in various plants and from a number of open hearths handling the same kind of steel. All temperature measurements were made with the same disappearing-filament type optical pyrometer and the corrections for emissivity applied were those worked out by Burgess,1 which are 0.40 for steel streams and 0.65 for slag. The correction is applied by calculating the curve giving the relation between the true and apparent temperature in the following formula: Log E = CZ log e( 1 _ 1 x \T2 T1) in which E = emissivity; C2 = 14,500; e = base of Napierien logarithms; ? = wave-length of light used = 0.65/4; T2 = true temperature, in degrees absolute; T,1 apparent temperature, in degrees absolute. The curve showing the relation between true and apparent temperature for steel and slag arc given in Fig. 1. For the purpose of comparison of open-hearth and electric furnaces, there are given in Table 1 the tapping temperatures of two 25-ton Heroult electric furnaces and one 6-ton with one 50-ton acid, one 40-ton basic, and one 65-ton acid open-hearth furnace, all making nickel ordnance steel for guns. The two 25-ton Heroult electric furnaces were finishing steel refined by the triplex process and the 6-ton Heroult finished steel that was partly refined in an open hearth.. In this table, the tapping temperature and the temperature of the steel stream into the first ingot

Jan 9, 1919

By F. H. Labee

Questionnaires and special letters soliciting information were sent to a great many geologists, petroleum engineers, independent operators, and representatives of large companies in Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas and New Mexico. Replies to more than 50 per cent. of these letters were received. A survey of the facts and opinions presented in this correspondence will be made a little later, but first some of the general aspects of the problem will be reviewed. By "unit operation,"1 we mean the development and operation of a single entire pool, or reservoir, of petroleum by one management, on a systematic and scientific plan which is best calculated ultimately to extract from the pay sand and bring to the surface of the ground the largest possible amount of oil with the greatest possible total profit. No one, as far as the author has been able to ascertain, denies the advantages, both scientific and practical, of unit operation. All are agreed that it is sound in theory. It permits the proper distribution of wells, which should always be spaced on the ground according to a regular geometric plan with the intention of maintaining the same spacing all the way down and into the pay sand, or pay sands. This spacing will be different for different fields, depending on such variable factors as the lithologic character of the pay formation, the nature of the controlling structure, the depth of drilling, the viscosity of the oil, and so on. From the viewpoint of engineering practice, as applied to economical extraction of oil, there is no more important consideration than well spacing—well spacing in the pay formation, and not merely on the surface of the ground —for the method of well spacing has a direct bearing upon all such engineering practices as pressure control, repressuring by gas, the water drive, and SO on. H. C. Miller2 summarized the advantages of an ideal cooperative development plan as follows: "Among the more important advantages of

Jan 1, 1930

By Newell G. Alford

At its meeting in the fall of 1937, the Executive Committee of the Coal Division considered the growing scarcity of young engineers entering coal mining with serious intentions. This scarcity was the cause of considerable alarm and a committee consisting of C. T. Hayden, E. A. Holbrook, C. E. Lawall and L. E. Young, with the writer as chairman, was appointed to gather factual data on the current trend. A questionnaire1 was designed and mailed to the heads of the 60 mineral technology schools listed by Prof. W. B. Plank in his article in September 1937.2 Replies were received from 46 institutions, not all from heads of coal-mining courses but all from men that at one time or another have had experience with some kind of coal-mining curricula and know current student impressions. Our committee is indebted to all of these gentlemen for their cooperation. Our committee hoped by this means to quickly reach the root of the trouble and make a set of comprehensive recommendations to the Coal Division for relieving the industry immediately from the growing dearth of youth who yearn for coal-mining careers, but the condition is more serious than at first diagnosed. We must now refer the question back to the Coal Division, with the recommendation that the Division get the industry's permission for still another major operation on its frame of mind. In addition to 10-year statistics on the first pay received by graduates in coal mining and other technical work, we requested enrollment data for 20 years from all schools with either mining engineering or mineral technology curricula. Nine leading questions were also plied, as shown in the Appendix. Every one of the answers was significant and interesting. Fortunately, we encountered positive frankness that was extremely helpful.

Jan 1, 1938

By Oswald J. Heinrich

THE serious objections to the Leblanc soda process may be enumerated as follows : 1st. The total loss of sulphur employed, equal to about one-third of soda produced. Various processes have been proposed to regain this sulphur, but none have come into practical operation on a large scale. 2d. The great bulk of waste products, equal to nearly twice the amount of soda, which forms a serious annoyance about the works. 3d. The complicated series of operations necessary. 4th. The large amount of labor and fuel required. 5th. The production of noxious gases which necessitate extensive condensing arrangements. 6th. The large capital necessary for the erection and maintenance of the plant. These objections have long been recognized, and many attempts have been made during the last thirty or forty years, to discover and introduce a cheaper and more direct method for the manufacture of this important staple. The reaction between bicarbonate of ammonia and common salt, whereby bicarbonate of soda, insoluble in a solution of chloride of ammonium, is precipitated, has been closely studied for the last twenty-four years, on account of its simplicity and the purity of the product it affords. This ammonia-soda process is now so far developed, that while it is not .in position to entirely replace the Leblanc process, yet it can successfully compete with it where the conditions and localities are favorable. The advantages of the ammonia-soda process may be summed up as follows : 1st. It is independent of the essential agent in the Leblanc process, viz., sulphuric acid, and hence can be established in those localities where salt is abundant, and yet where sulphuric acid could not be made, or where it could not be transported profitably. 2d. The ammonia-soda process being a " wet" process, the evaporation of salt brines to obtain the solid salt required in the Leblanc process, is rendered unnecessary. 3d. The direct conversion of chloride of sodium into bicarbonate of soda, which can readily be converted into the maketable monocar-

Jan 1, 1879

He took a great interest in technical matters and his inclination was strongly toward research investigations. At the same time he was effective in manual and mechanical work and was generally found working side by side with the men under his direction. His nature was unselfish and he was extremely popular socially. He was a member of the Coeur d'Alene Commandery, Knights Templar. Stanly A. Easton. Lieutenant.Louis Baird Louis Baird, a Lieutenant in the Royal Field Artillery of the British Army, died on the battlefield in 1915. Lieutenant Baird was born July 28, 1880, at Stirling, Scotland. His technical education was obtained at King's College, Melbourne, Australia, in 1893 to 1895, and at the Technical College at Glasgow, Scotland, in 1897 to 1900. After an apprenticeship with the Mexican J. & 8. Rec. Co. of Mexico, lasting from 1900 to 1903, he became mill superintendent for the Cia. Minera Benito, at Juarez, Zac. During the year 1905-6 he was assistant manager of the Caridelaria y Anexas, at Pinos, Zac., and from 1906 to 1907 was engineer with the Cia. Minera Jalisco, San Sebastian, Jalisco. At the time of his admission to the Institute, in 1908, he was practising as a mining engineer at Etzatlan, Jalisco, Mexico. For the next four years he practised his profession in the City of Guadalajara, Jalisco, removing, in 1913, to Ixtlan del Rio, in the State of Tepic. It was from here that he returned to England to put his services at the disposal of the British Government. The Institute is not definitely informed as to how, where, or when Lieutenant Baird met his death. iCaptain John H. Ballamy John H. Ballamy, Captain on the Regimental Staff of the 103d Engineers, was killed near Fismes, on Aug. 9, 1918. Captain Ballamy was born at Plvmouth. Pa.. in 1886 and graduated from' the High School of that town in 1903. In the following year he began work as a coal miner, and at the same time began the study of mining engineering in the evening and any other spare time. He continued this diligent and energetic practice for many years. For sixteen years he continued in the employment of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Rai1roa.d Company's coal mining

Jan 1, 1920

By George Riter

OUR mineral-land laws need revising so as to provide definite title at the outset to the mineral deposits within any definite piece of land. The laws as they now stand, especially those applicable to lodes, breed uncertainty as to rights of possession prior to patent; and to my mind this is the worst feature of all, worse even than the apex bugbear. It is now almost impossible for anybody to tell with certainty what mineral rights exist within any area that is not covered y patent, or whether any valid rights exist at all. Our system is unique in permitting individuals to appropriate and exploit mineral lands of the public domain without notice of any kind to the Federal government, and to relinquish them without any ceremony at all. The result is a clouded record that cannot be cleared' up until each claimant is put to some sort of final proof. In order to accomplish this, new Federal legislation will be required. The requirements for a mineral survey and the proceedings for patent have always been cumbersome and expensive; and perhaps out of regard for the poor claim owner, who can ill afford the outlay for that sort of thing, the law does not require him to go through it unless he chooses to do so. Consequently, every active mining district has become encumbered with tangled groups of doubtful or conflicting locations, whose rights and boundaries, when any valuable ore is found, must usually be determined by lawsuits that are as expensive and as distressing as the stakes are high. So deeply has litigation entered into our mining system that a claim whose rights have never been disputed would probably be set down offhand, y a miner of the old school, as of no value. Think of the litigation over rights of possession on the Comstock lode-12 leading companies involved in an aggregate of 245 suits within a period of less than eight years! Ambiguous local records; the chance of erroneously placed or obliterated monuments; doubt as to the sufficient performance of the statutory annual labor; uncertainty as to prior conflicting or overlapping locations; anxiety as to the changing attitude of the Department of the Interior and the Forest Service-such considerations as these make an unpatented mining claim an unclean thing in the eyes of possible investors. Is it any wonder that they keep themselves and their money at a safe distance,

Jan 7, 1914

By Michael Hoch, Daniel B. Butrymowicz

The isothermal section of the Ta-Ti-Zr-0 system at 1500°C was investigated using X-ray diffraction and rrzetallographic techniques. Up to 71.4 at, pct 0 the system contains nine four -phase regions. Zsopleths at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 at. pct 0 were constructed. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the general shape of the quaternary equilibrium phase diagram of tantalum, titanium, zirconium, and oxygen at 1500°C. The system was truncated at 66.7 at. pct 0 on the Ti-0 and Zr-0 binaries and at 71.4 at. pct 0 on the Ta-0 binary. The Ti-Zr-0 system was investigated in this laboratory.' The binary systems of interest have been compiled and discussed by Hansen and Anderk, chmidt, Hayes, Roberson, and asche, and Hoch and athur.' EQUIPMENT The Same equipment as that for the study of the Nb(Cb)-Ti-Zr-0 system was used.' The X-ray dif- fraction patterns were analyzed with the help of the ASTM card set7 and NBS circulars.' MATERIALS The tantalum powder (99 pct pure), the titanium powder (99.6 pct pure), the tantalum pentoxide, and the zirconium dioxide used in this study were purchased from the Fairmont Chemical Co., Newark, N.J. The zirconium powder (99.4 pct pure) was obtained from the Charles Hardy Co., Inc., New York. Reagent-grade titanium dioxide was purchased from the Matheson Co., Inc., Norwood, Ohio. The oxides were dried in air at 700°C for 24 hr before use. Though the materials used were not "hyper-pure", the impurities present do not affect the results (lattice parameters, phase boundaries), within the experimental accuracy. PROCEDURE The samples were heated by induction in a vacuum furnace, and examined metallographically and by X-ray diffraction at room temperature. The procedure was the same as that in the Nb(Cb)-Ti-Zr-O work,' EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF DATA A four-component system can be represented by a tetrahedron at a single temperature and pressure

Jan 1, 1964

Records of coal in Colorado begin only a few years before the Civil War. In 1859 Macomb reported beds of lignite on both sides of Galisteo Creek, and in the foothills of the Placer Mountains, a place where an outburst and overflow-of trap had changed the lignite into bright, hard anthracite.1 The Union Pacific Railroad sent Joseph T. Hodge to investigate the coal deposits in the Rocky Mountains, close to the projected line, in the fall of 1863. He was told of coal on South Boulder and Rock Creeks, and that somewhere on Lodge Pole Creek it was being worked for supplying fuel for stage stations; a bed was also reported seven miles north of the stage road between Laporte and Latham. It was only in the vicinity of Denver that coal mines were being worked to any extent; these openings were on Coal Creek about 22 miles north of the town, said to have been opened in. 1860. The coal was used by the smiths with ,difficulty and slacked badly on exposure., Some coke was made from one of the seams, the coke being preferred to the raw coal by smiths. Another district was opened along South Boulder Creek, about two and a half miles from the base of the Rocky Mountains, two mines being worked to supply the Denver market.2 Hayden reported a large bed of coal at Golden in 1861 and of having seen a similar one in 1862 about 65 miles east of Pikes Peak, and in 1866, he saw large beds on Rock Creek 16 to 19 miles from Golden. In 1867 he saw the Belmont or Marshall's mines opened in 1863 on South Boulder Creek, which he said was the finest exhibition of coal in the state. The next one was the Murphy mine, on Ralston Creek, five miles north of Golden. A mine was also being worked near Canon City at that time.3 The coal at Golden was being worked in 1864.4 In 1867 the coal mined at Golden was being used in a firebrick' works. At Canon City and other places on the waters of Arkansas River, coal was being mined for use in the valley towns, bringing $5.00 per ton at the mines.5

Jan 1, 1942

By A. B. Stevens, C. J. Coberly

The absolute porosity of a rock or sand may be defined as the volume of the interparticle space expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. The effective porosity as contrasted with the absolute porosity is the volume of the interparticle spaces which intercommunicate with passages of sufficient size to permit the entrance or recovery of gas or oil, also expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. A knowledge of effective porosity is of prime importance in estimating the ultimate recovery to be expected from oil and gas-bearing formations. The determination of the effective porosity of a rock includes the measurement of two values: (I) the volume of the rock as a whole, and (2) the volume of the grains and sealed pore space. This paper deals with a new apparatus which has been called a "hydrogen porosimeter" for determining the volume of the grains and the sealed pore space. This volume is determined by means of the pressure relations established in the instrument by the introduction of a known quantity of hydrogen. The Hydrogen Porosimeter The apparatus used in this work consists of an upper chamber for measuring the gas, a lower chamber for holding the sample to be tested, a gage for measuring the pressures, a tank of hydrogen, and the necessary connections. (Figs. 1 and 2.) Of the several gases that might be used for this work, hydrogen has been chosen for three reasons: (1) it deviates less from the gas laws than most gases; (2) it readily penetrates the sample; (3) it is absorbed less than most gases by the solids and liquids with which it may come in contact. Method of Operation After placing the sample to be tested in the lower chamber, the apparatus is thoroughly flushed with hydrogen to remove all air from the system, which is then brought to atmospheric pressure Po. The valve connecting the two chambers is next closed and the pressure in the upper chamber is brought up to a pressure PI by admitting gas from the tank.

Jan 1, 1933

By Charles W. Wagner

A premature explosion might be described as an explosion that, occurs before the miner expects it. Notwithstanding that it is unexpected, a premature is generally within the miner's control. A hangfire explosion is a blast that occurs after the miner expects it,, and in all instances, except where the explosives or blasting accessories are defective, hangfire explosions are within the miner's control. Causes of Premature Explosions Generally, there are seven methods of shot-firing in anthracit,e mines; namely: (1) cap and fuse with dynamite, (2) fuse with pellet powder, (3) squib with black powder or pellets, (4) exploders and delays with dynamite or black powder, (5) exploders with dynamite, (6) delay ignitors with black powder or pellets, (7) electric squibs with black powder or pellets. Cap and Fuse.—This method of firing seems to produce the greatest number of premature explosions. This is not solely because of the method, but is the result of mispractices which are possible with this method of firing. The two most common mispractices followed with cap-and-fuse blasting are the firing of multiple holes and the use of short fuse.. In the firing of multiple holes by cap and fuse, investigations have shown that in nearly every instance where the miner was injured by this method of firing he remained too long at the face lighting the several fuses, so that the first shot went off before he could reach a place of safety. Such accidents could have been avoided either by accurate judgment by the miner of the relative lengths of the fuses or by the use of electric firing. Rules exist in nearly every mine forbidding the lighting of more than one hole at a time where the cap-and-fuse method of firing is practiced. Where it is desirable to fire more than one hole at a, time, electric firing should be used. It is difficult to understand why so many premature explosions result from the use of short fuses, inasmuch as the cost of fuse is practically a negligible item in the expense of a day's work. Notwithstanding this, however, we frequently find miners using short lengths of fuse in an effort to save one or two cents per hole, or about 15 to 20 # in a day. A practice

Jan 1, 1931

By H. E. Crum, W. E. Hubbard

This review covers the northern 32 counties of the Texas Panhandle, an area 180 miles square. The westerly three-fourths of the district lies wholly within that great area known as the Llano Estacado or "staked plains." Six of the counties produce oil and gas and three produce gas alone. All of the production is associated with the Amarillo arch, a huge anticline superimposed upon a buried mountain range which is undoubtedly a continuation of the Wichitas of southwestern Oklahoma. Oil Production The production of the Texas Panhandle up to Jan. 1,1930, was slightly over 157 million barrels, 90 per cent. of which came from Hutchinson and Gray counties. About 33,000,000 bbl. was produced during 1930. Though this was about 9 per cent. above the 1929 production, it was over 8,000,000 bbl. less than was produced during the peak year, 1928. The present daily production is slightly over 40,000 bbl., which is the allowable production under state-wide proration. The assumed potential for the purpose of proration is 124,500 bbl. and the actual capacity of the wells probably would be in the neighborhood of 100,000 barrels. The total initial production of the oil wells completed in 1930 was 157,289 bbl. from 308 wells, or 511 bbl. per well, as compared to a 734-bbl. average from the 350 oil wells drilled during the preceding year. The completions in Gray County numbered 232, with an average initial of 614 barrels. Completions During 1930, 526 wells were completed in the Panhandle as compared to a total of 503 during 1929. Of the year's completions, 308 were oil wells, 169 produced gas and 49 were dry holes. Of the 3027 wells drilled in the Panhandle to date, 2780 have produced oil, gas or both, making the ratio of dry holes to producers about 1:11.3. Ignoring the 63 dry holes drilled in nonproductive counties, the ratio becomes 184:2780 or 1:15.1 which is slightly less favorable than that which obtained at the end of 1929.

Jan 1, 1931

By Northcutt Ely

The subject of this paper implies three questions: whether regulation is necessary; if so, what sort of regulation is wise; and, finally, by what government the power to regulate is to be exercised. In the year 1937 emphasis falls on the third of those questions. This contrasts with the situation prevailing a dozen years ago, when the question was whether regulation was necessary at all; and with the situation a few months ago, when the third question seemed answered by the Supreme Court decisions on the National Recovery Act, Agricultural Adjustment Act and Guffey Coal Control Act, and by the ratification of the Interstate Oil Compact. It then appeared settled that the State and not the Federal Government possessed the regulatory powers and, granting that conservation measures are a recognized necessity, the problem seemed to be to develop the wisest kind of regulation that the Constitution would permit. Today, by virtue of developments during the first months of 1937, the oil industry is faced again by the question of whether the Federal Government is to have power to control its operations, along with those of the other basic industries. Developments in Governmental Control There have been three recent developments. The dominating one is the President's proposal that he be authorized to increase the size of the Supreme Court to 15 members. The implications of that plan ought to be perfectly plain to the oil industry. This suggestion is made in lieu of offering an amendment to the Constitution, to reverse the Supreme Court decisions mentioned. In those decisions the Court held that production does not constitute commerce, and hence that the Federal power to regulate interstate commerce does not extend to the regulation of production. These holdings were contrary to the Government's contention that the stream of commerce begins in the factory and ends with the consumer and may be regulated at any point from beginning to end. That position was urged in the Government briefs in Amazon Petroleum Co. v. Ryan, defending the petroleum code, and repeated as late as Feb. 10, 1937, in the case of National Labor Relations

Jan 1, 1937

By Carl Thieme

INDUSTRIAL specialization has rapidly created a demand for new and better alloys. A more thorough understanding of the requirements of specific industries and the discovery of processes by which it has been made possible to utilize certain metallic elements in larger quantities, together with greater purity in most virgin metals, has resulted in a great increase in the number and variety of alloys. This increase in the number of elements entering into non-ferrous alloy manufacture has increased the contamination in secondary metals, as received by the smelter. In order to successfully refine scrap of a much more complex nature it has been necessary for the smelter to install new equipment and to constantly search for new methods of refining as well as to improve the methods already in use. In some instances it is largely responsible for specialization in the secondary metal industry. It is usually necessary to remove the contaminating impurities in scrap or eliminate to a degree not objectionable, no matter how introduced. In order to know what metals or elements are of an objectionable nature, the smelter must make a study of the effect of single elements and combinations of elements on many of the physical and mechanical properties, such as strength, ductility, color, hardness, casting soundness, etc. The smelter of secondary metals must be able to utilize scrap materials of all kinds, for, sooner or later, most fabricated metal parts and the waste products formed during the process of manufacture find their way to the smelter. In addition, the smelter, in contracting for salvaged material from the producer, gets some undesirable and unusual materials. The value of secondary metals and the importance of their recovery has increased in recent years and it is no longer sufficient to recover the base metal only, such as copper from copper-bearing material, but it is essential that other elements present be recovered and converted into useful form.

Jan 1, 1928

By H. B. Fuqua, B. E. Thompson

The area discussed in this paper, commonly known as the West Texas district, is easily divisible into three geologic provinces, the Midland Basin to the east, the Delaware Basin to the west and the West Texas structural platform separating these two. Production in Garza, Scurry, Mitchell, Howard, Glasscock, Irion, Reagan and central Crockett counties is associated with the east flank of the Midland Basin. That in Loving and Reeves counties is associated with the Delaware Basin. All other production and developments discussed in this paper belong to the province of the West Texas structural platform. Because of certain developments that have occurred during the past year, it has been found necessary to slightly revise one of the fields as grouped by Mr. Reith in last year's paper1. The Scarborough-Leck field has been broken down as follows (Table 1): The Leck field is shown separately because it is producing from dolomite; while the Scarborough area, producing from sand, is regrouped and designated as " Scarborough-Kermit-Halley," which includes the producing sand belt across Winkler County from Ward County to New Mexico. It is believed that this is a more logical division of Winkler County and that considerable future work will be avoided by making this change before further production figures have accumulated under the present set-up. A number of new fields are listed in Table 1, some of which may represent extensions of other produeing arras. The authors, however, are inclined to believe that they represent new fields. In either event, less work is involved ill adding two areas together, if they later prove to be one, than in attempting to separate a maze of production data into two fields after they have been erroneously carried as one for a number of years. The Howard-Glasscock field is designated in this review as the Chalk-Roberts field and the Denman production on the Howard-Mitchell County line is included in the Iatan field. Development during 1934 Development in West Texas during the year 1934 showed a marked increase over the previous year both in exploration and ill exploitation

Jan 1, 1935

Without having asked for it, the writer has apparently been drawn into the discussion regarding relative hoisting capacities which was started by Woodward Iron, egged on by Joe Haller of Cleveland-Cliffs [Mining Engineering, August p. 642] and Axel Kjelgaard [November p. 919], who took exception to Mr. Haller's remarks of tonnage hoisted and avers that they do better in Sweden. It does not appear to the writer that Mr. Haller was inclined to refer to the tonnage hoisted at Cleveland-Cliffs in a manner to imply that they claimed any hoisting record, but rather as a statement that they had hoisted a certain amount of ore during the year 1950. Mr. Haller has been in the mining game long enough to appreciate what Mr. Kjelgaard did not apparently take into consideration, that length of haul, shifts hoisted, nature of ore, method of loading and the many other factors which influence the hoisting cycle make a comparison of tonnages hoisted of two given mines almost an impossibility. Mr. Cheyette sent you .a copy of his letter to Bob Manegold relative to the capacities of the Orient #2 mine. There are several mines around the Country which constantly set up records about which little or nothing at all is ever heard. We cite the Snow Hill Coal Co. mine at Terre Haute, Ind., which has an automatic Nordberg hoist and which hoists 12 tons per trip or 700 tons per hr from 700 ft. This is a counter-weighted installation and a complete cycle is made every 62 seconds or 58 trips per hr. Another mine, The Potash Company of America mine at Carlsbad, N. Mex., has a Nordberg automatic hoist, hoisting eight tons per trip from 1150 ft on a one minute cycle. The materials hoisted in these two mines are ideal for automatic hoisting-they are free flowing so that no hang up is anticipated and hoisting is continuous. Multiplying out the above figures you will find that it is possible to hoist 11,000 tons in two shifts at Snow Hill or over 3 million tons in 300 days per year and over 2 million tons at Potash. Other mines have records which can be pointed to with pride. When a record for one year is established, it doesn't stand too long as here in America the ambition of all the men connected with the operation forces them on to larger tonnages. T. C. WIEDENHOEFER MANAGER MINE HOIST DEPARTMENT NORDBERG MANUFACTNRING CO. MILWAUKEE, WIS.

Jan 1, 1952

By F. W. Lake, H. A. Brett

With each year bringing the exploration of deeper and deeper producing horizons in the effort to maintain production, the problem of lifting the oil to the surface is continually becoming more difficult. Flowing and gas-lift wells eventually decline to such a point that pumping is necessary. The increasing loads on sucker rods resulting from deeper pumping operations are approaching the ultimate strength of the rods with consequent reduction in the factor of safety. With this diminishing factor of safety, the vibratory stresses causing fatigue, crystallization, and ultimate fracture become more important. These vibratory stresses are the result of varied pumping conditions which, if properly understood and investigated, may be eliminated to a great extent. To accomplish this purpose, a recording dynameter has been developed which gives an indicator card showing the actual load on the polished rod at each point of the pumping cycle. Recording Dynamometer The instrument consists of a dynamometer head of the piston and cylinder type filled with castor oil, and a recording device, the movable card holder being connected with the dynamometer through a system of levers and the hollow spring gage connected with the fluid chamber of the dynamometer by a high-pressure flexible tube. The dynamometer head is hung from the beam with an ordinary hanger and lugs on the cylinder, while the piston is attached to the polished rod. The movable card holder actuated through levers moves in a vertical direction pro-portionate to the movement of the polished rod. The recording arm of the hollow spring gage inscribes on the card the pressure at all times. Thus by proper scales, the indicator card gives the load on the polished rod at all points in the pumping cycle. Fig. 1 shows the hookup of the recording dynamometer at a pumping well.

Jan 1, 1928