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By H Parra, D Zenteno

Fragmentation modelling has been in use in the mining industry for a long time; however, there are still some aspects to tackle with regard to its use for strategic/planning and day-to-day purposes.On one hand, an important amount of resources are allocated to the task of calibrating and validating a good fragmentation model. Nonetheless, errors during the implementation stage introduce uncertainty into the prediction.On the other hand, it is common practice in the mining industry to use only discrete values to represent the fragmentation from blasting (k20, k50, k80), which provides a biased interpretation of the situation as, for instance, the best and worst possible cases are not taken into account. This is particularly critical when a continuous improvement philosophy has been adopted and modelling is used to either modify the drilling and blasting designs or plan ahead.It is well known that every site has particular conditions (rock mass, equipment, drilling and loading practices, among others) that often define unique trends in implementation. These trends can be captured using statistic and probabilistic techniques and then used as proxies for further analysis.This paper explores the potential of including implementation data in the form of probabilistic distributions into the Swebrec model to improve the performance of this engineering tool during the decision-making process.The fragmentation results of four designs were modelled using three different degrees of accuracy in the implementation for the burden, spacing and explosive column length.The data analysis showed that the probabilistic approach helps to achieve a broader perspective regarding the fragmentation that it is possible to obtain and the implications for the subsequent processes. The analysis also showed that the likelihood of producing similar fragmentation with different designs (involving different powder factors and costs associated) increases with the variability of the implementation.CITATION:Parra, H and Zenteno, D, 2015. Evaluating the inclusion of the implementation variability into fragmentation modelling, in Proceedings 11th International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, pp 121–126 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 24, 2015

By Y K. Leong

Occasionally additives are used in the wet processing of iron ore tailings and slurries, for examples, in the thickening of tailings with flocculant to recover process water, and in the smooth pumping of concentrated slurries. They can mitigate slurry behavioural issues that could significantly affect the plant operation and production. The nature of iron ore business requiring the plant to have a high throughput to be economical, large amounts of slurries are therefore processed every day. The quantity of additives needed will correspondingly be large and so are the associated costs. This could have a significant impact on the plant profitability. If additives are used they must be very costeffective. NaOH is among the lowest cost chemicals available, at ~US$400 per ton. In this paper we will look at use of composite additives involving phosphate compounds with NaOH added to reduce the cost, for the control of iron ore slurries rheology. The NaOH worked synergistically with the phosphate compounds. The effectiveness of these composite additives in viscosity reduction can be neutralised by another cheap additive such as lime or a Ca(II)-based salt turning the slurries back to being a paste. Tailings paste is an ideal material for safe storage in the dam. These composite additives can also be used to facilitate the recovery of iron ore at commercial grade from tailings (Leong, 2020a, 2021a).

Sep 18, 2023

Western Deep Levels, a seismically active deep level gold mine, started placing backfill in their narrow tabular workings as part of the regional support strategy in 1986. Over the years the percentage of working places being backfilled has been gradually increasing. At the end of 1995 the support efficiency and the labour productiveness relating to support installation were scrutinised to determine if resources were being optimised. Owing to financial, safety and productivity constraints it was decided to redesign stope support to be less labour intensive, safer and provide an integrated stope support system. This new integrated system will thus combine the previously used temporary, permanent and back area support consisting of mechanical props, hydraulic props and backfill respectively. Backfill previously formed an integral part of the regional support in conjunction with strike stabilising pillars. To design the integrated support system the backfill placement quality has to be exceptionally good and placement must be done as close as possible to the working face. The backfill to face distance was reduced by 30 per cent and in some areas by more than 50 per cent with an increase of square metres filled to increase the effect of the backfill even more. This paper addresses the design and successful implementation of an integrated stope support system based on the optimisation of backfill to the extent where installation of mechanical and hydraulic jacks could be eliminated.

Jan 1, 1998

By Harrison AT, Smart RM

Backfill systems using unconventional cementitious hinders have been successfully used in relatively deep and hard rock tabular mines for longwall, scattered stoping and shaft pillar removals. Two unconventional cementitious systems are discussed: 1. A ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) with an activator containing lime. This has been used with a total tailings 'stable' slurry at a relatively low dosage of less than seven per cent, by mass, based on dry solids. The room and pillar stopes supported with this fill were up to 20 in high and the tailings were relatively high in pyrite. .\ GGBS binder plus a silicate based activator and gelling agent that virtually eliminated all water drainage (and hence post filling shnnkage). The system used a slurry, but the addition of the ;iutivator created a final placed product that had the behaviour of a paste. The system has been successfully used for almost ten years in the following applications: ò sloping widths (mining heights) above 1.6 in; and ò shaft pillar removals in seismically active areas at the end of the life of the shafts. \This paper discusses the technical merits and costs of the systems and compares them to other fill systems (including true paste systems).

Jan 1, 1998

By J Robertson, D Williams, H D. Plewes

The co-mixing of tailings and waste rock involves the intimate blending of tailings and waste rock to create a new material (Co-Mix) with superior physical and hydraulic properties. The new material has a low hydraulic conductivity, low compressibility, high water retaining capacity and high shear strength. Co-mixed tailings and waste rock restrict oxygen entry and water seepage to minimise acid generation and metal leaching. When compacted, Co-Mix materials have low volume change characteristics with respect to total stress and matric suction together with high shear strength. Co-mixed tailings and waste rock may be used to construct cover systems, internal barriers and seals, confinement structures or a full depth waste repository. The theoretical properties of Co-Mix blends are investigated. The results of a laboratory program to characterise the physical and hydraulic properties of co-mixed tailings and waste rock are presented. Various ratios of tailings were blended with different waste rock materials. Hydraulic conductivity tests were conducted at confining pressures ranging between 0 and 400 kPa. The saturated hydraulic conductivity for the Co-Mix materials was found to vary between 4 + 10-5 m/s and 5 + 10-9 m/s depending on blend ratio, waste rock type and confining pressure. These results together with other physical properties show excellent hydraulic and strength characteristics can be achieved for Co-Mix materials.

Jan 1, 2003

By D J. Williams

Tailings management is typically constrained by many factors that are taken as given. These include the tailings production rate that must be accommodated, the desire to deliver the tailings cheaply and easily as a slurry using centrifugal pumps, and a tailings footprint limited by the desire to minimise capital costs leading to a rapid tailings rate of rise and a low settled density. Other constraints include wall raises being delayed due to limited capital, inadequate tailings water and rainfall run-off management, and the net present value (NPV) approach to capital expenditure that puts off expenditure at the expense of performance. All of these constraints result in the tailings occupying much more volume than is necessary, being difficult to rehabilitate, and not being capable of supporting a beneficial post-mining land use or function. Ultimately, such constrained tailings storage facilities will assume very large dimensions, but each will typically be developed as a series of smaller storages that are filled rapidly and added to progressively. The optimal stage to efficiently recover process water is in the process plant, but this is limited by the desire to use centrifugal pumps rather than the more costly positive displacement pumps, which also require greater management of tailings deposition. Process water can also be recovered from the tailings storage facility (TSF) decant. Tailings water that is not recovered from the plant or the decant will be lost to entrainment within the tailings, seepage to the foundation or through the wall, or evaporation. However, tailings water is not always suitable for reuse in the plant, particularly when it becomes contaminated by the processing, and it may simply be stored on the TSF. This will exacerbate the seepage of contaminated water to the environment, and will limit the densification of the tailings that would otherwise occur due to desiccation of the tailings on exposure. If a larger tailings footprint were developed early, cycling of tailings deposition in thin lifts between a number of cells could occur, maintaining the dormant cells dry to enhance desiccation and densification, and ultimate rehabilitation. The end result would be a much reduced stored volume of tailings, the potential for upstream raising, and ease of rehabilitation to a high level. The higher initial capital cost would be overtaken by reduced ongoing capital, operating and closure costs.CITATION:Williams, D J, ?2014. An alternative whole-of-life approach to tailings management, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2014 , pp 285–298 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 16, 2014

By Whittaker B. N, Reddish D. J

This paper presents the physical modelling results of subsurface fracture development associated with Iongwall mining operations and an application of image processing techniques to interpretion of the results. Physical modelling results haióbeen obtained by employing a large sand and plaster model loaded purely by gravity as a means of fracturing the subsurface strata above the longwall excavation. The results have shown fracture development and crack propagation as a longwall face advances and demonstrated that the strength of stratified rocks, the presence and position of a weak band-, and the extraction thickness, have significant effects upon the overall fracture patterns above the excavation. Binary images of fracture patterns were scanned from the black and white photographs of the tested models using an image analyser coupled to a video camels. These images were manipulated by a custom written C program which allows the images to be processed in both vertical and horizontal direction. The images were filtered to quantitatively differentiate between vertical and horizontal fracture intensities. The vertical fracture intensity is particularly important as vertical fractures are considered to provide the main avenues for surface and subsurface water inflow into the excavation. The use of the image analysis techniques has shown a promising improvement in image enhancement and in model results interpretation in a quantitative manner. The numerical nature of the image analysis results will allow further statistical comparison with other modelling techniques to be undertaken and significantly increase the scope for use of the modelling technique results.

Jan 1, 1992

THE treatment by chlorination of the Mount Morgan Gold Mining Company's ores was first accomplished, early in 1886, by a works having a capacity of 25,000 tons per annum. Shortly afterwards another works was established, capable of dealing with 50,000 tons per annum. The extraction of gold was originally successful and satisfactory, but running expenses were high, averaging £2 19s. 6d. per ton of ore treated. These works were believed to be the largest chlorination plants in the world at that time. As might have been expected, the mechanical details and chemical process had not been perfected, and, moreover, both works were hurriedly built, and operating expenses were not then considered of such prime importance, as the ore at that time was of very high grade; the large quantities of low grade ore since dealt with not being then considered, since the bulk of it was not even known to be in existence. These two works consisted of rock-breakers, high speed rolls, screens, elevators, &c., for crushing; a large number of small handrabbled reverberatory furnaces for roasting; one-ton chlorination barrels and three-ton leaching vats for chlorination. The transport of ore from crusher to furnaces, from furnaces to chlorination barrels, and the emptying of leaching vats was effected entirely by hand labour. The system of chlorination was what was, known as Mears process, chloride of lime and sulphuric acid being used in the chlorination barrels, and as the time allowed...

Jan 1, 1911

By S Azam

Coal is a vital energy source and source of carbon for metallurgical applications, contributing significantly to the world economy. Coal mining and processing involve multiple processes that generate Respirable Coal Mine Dust (RCMD), one of the primary sources of health hazards for coal workers. Since 2000, the rate of Coal Workers’ Pneumoconiosis (CWP) has continually increased in the U.S, with severity of the cases also worsening. Increasing evidence shows that exposure to RCMD in coal workers is a high-risk factor for lung cancer, which causes more deaths than the following three major cancers combined in the US Recent observations show an increased incidenceof CWP or other lung diseases, particularly among young miners in the Appalachian basin. The CWP prevalence in Appalachia is four times higher than the national average. Although various regulations are in place, the resurgence of such disease among coalminers demands additional efforts to better understand all the possible facets of coal dust toxicity, taking insights from current interdisciplinaryresearch efforts. One such important field is the interaction of coal dust with moisture in underground mines. Although moisture is prevalent and dynamic in an underground mining environment, it has never been evaluated for its impact on modifying the toxicity of coal dust and transport or flow behaviour. However, research conducted in atmospheric sciences in the past decade makes it clear that moisture in the atmosphere can significantly alter the behaviour of mineral dust. This paper is a part of research aimed at understanding how moisture interacts and alters the characteristics of coal dust. Such insight is crucial in understanding the potential toxicity of coal dust and developing mitigation technologies.

Oct 12, 2022

The value of Australia's education services exports increased to over $15 billion dollars in 2009, placing education as the third overall export earner behind coal and iron ore; however there are concerns over the impact of emerging policies on the future of both the industry and the provision of mining education. Policies have impacts on the growing number of international rankings (or league tables) of mining jurisdictions and universities. A high position in such rankings might be used as a measure of perceived quality with benefit to those at the top and to the detriment to those lower down.    Top performing companies in the relatively new domain of sustainability have been shown to achieve better financial performance than their industry competitors, assisting them in attracting top quality committed staff, hence positioning themselves well for the future. The world's mining companies, jurisdictions and universities are now ranked with results in the public domain. It is argued as to the validity of the data or perceptions used in such rankings, but there is no doubt they are influential in determining the flow of dollars around the globe. By investing your pension fund assets in the shares of the top performing companies, by placing your exploration dollars in a country at the top of such a list of attractive jurisdictions, attending or recruiting from a University at the top of the rankings - risk must surely be reduced?   While savings and risk reduction can undoubtedly result from the introduction of new technologies developed through appropriate R&D (the other core activity of a university), the maintenance of a very high level of exploration and production performance through dedicated highly skilled staff every hour of every day quietly improves financial performance, while avoiding safety, environmental and/or community incidents (ie protects the 'triple bottom line'). As always risk reduction comes down to enabling quality people to do a quality job - through the actions of such people we can sustain the global mining industry and secure our social license to operate. However, there is global concern over where the numbers of such people, including those with the recently required skills in sustainability, are going to come from.   This presentation will discuss some of the complexity and interactions involved in the development of such rankings, the dangers inherent in their simple acceptance and use, plus indicate some of the directions mining educators might take to sustain and increase the supply of quality graduates to the global mining industry. This is an ABSTRACT ONLY. No paper was prepared for this presentation.

Jun 1, 2010

By Just GD, Gillies ADS

There is an increasing need for reliable and comparable coal resource data and it is necessary to standardize the traditional classification procedures by quantifying the three basic evaluation criteria of economic feasibility, geologic assurance and recovery. For well documented deposits, geostatistical methods can consider- ably improve classification quality. A geostatistically based algorithm for classifying coal resources within the current Queensland and New South Wales codes has been developed. Application of the method in classifying resources from a number of seams exhibiting different structural characteristics is assessed. The method is found to give classification results which closely reflect the error associated with an estimate of resource quantities based on current sampling densi- ties. It requires a careful geostatistical analysis with emphasis on geological awareness. Resource category restrictions must be arbi- trarily assigned and remain constant for all deposits being compared. Engineering judgement is needed and interpretation may be required with isolated and peripheral blocks.

Jan 1, 1987

By E Kabwe, E Chanda, M Karakus, S Akdag

The Convergence Confinement Method (CCM) is one of the frequently used methods that considers the ground response to the advancing tunnel face. The CCM analytical solutions represent stress relaxation on circular tunnel walls in a rock/soil media. The CCM analytical solutions is based on circular tunnel geometry and consider a hydrostatic stress field in a homogeneous isotropic rock mass condition. However, noncircular tunnel geometries, non-hydrostatic stress field, staged excavation process in a discontinuous anisotropic non-linear rock mass conditions are usually ignored in these analytical solutions. In this paper, we investigate the performance of the existing CCM analytical solutions developed for elastic and elastoplastic ground behaviour for circular tunnels. For this purpose, a finite difference analysis is conducted to compare the analytical results with the results obtained from Finite Difference Method (FDM) for a chosen rock mass condition. Results obtained from the investigation shows that floor, crown and wall displacement are 30%, 10% and 23% more, respectively, in a horse-shoe relative to a circular tunnel. This indicates that the application of analytical formulation tailored for circular tunnels would lead to inaccurate quantification of wall convergence in horseshoe-shaped tunnels. CITATION:Kabwe, E, Karakus, M, Chanda, E and Akdag, S, 2018. Investigating the tunnel closure using convergence confinement method and 2D plane strain finite difference analysis, in Proceedings The Fourth Australasian Ground Control in Mining Conference (AusRock), pp 152–159 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Nov 30, 2018

By A B. Christie, R Barker

Recent studies carried out to support the development of a strategy for the New Zealand mineral industry by the NZ Minerals Industry Association have included investigations of mineral potential, and the development of scenarios for realising this countryÆs mineral potential by 2010. New economic research is applying a general equilibrium model to quantify the opportunity cost of this potential. The model analyses separately four categories of land (private land and three categories of Crown land) and identifies four distinct mineral classes û precious metals, industrial minerals, coal and aggregate. It investigates the economic effect of the increased availability of mineral resources on the mining industry itself, on other industry sectors and on the NZ economy generally, including its impact on unemployment, GDP and household welfare.The analyses suggest that increases in the level of GDP of between 1.9 per cent and 3.4 per cent may be obtained by utilising New ZealandÆs mineral wealth to varying degrees. The mineral industry sectors are significant beneficiaries under all scenarios; mineral output increases by between two and five times its current level. However, the flow-on effects to the rest of the economy, and to households, are also significant. The analyses show that household income, adjusted for changes in consumer prices, can be expected to increase by between 1.6 per cent and 2.7 per cent. This results largely from increased employment.

Jan 1, 2002

Determining the environmental consequences of green field projects is becoming an increasingly important component of new projects. Feasibility studies are regarded by potential investors as incomplete if a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has not been completed. These EIAÆs need to meet various local and international requirements in order to achieve bankability. Heavy mineral mining projects are often located in ecological sensitive coastal zones, and bring with them a suite of social impacts in the mainly developing countries within which they are usually located. This paper draws on experience gained in undertaking EIAÆs for heavy mineral mining projects in Kenya, Mozambique and South Africa, and uses these case studies to identify potential pitfalls. Important lessons include the need to initiate the EIA process as early as possible in the project, in order to develop management systems to mitigate the environmental impacts of exploration. Close and on-going consultation with affected communities is also seen to be critical to the success of the EIA. Proactive participation on the part of the environmental consultants with the project team and all interested and affected parties (IAPs) is important. An EIA commissioned later in project planning makes it difficult for the EIA to contribute in a positive manner to the project. Early engagement with environmental consultants allows the environmental assessment to develop from a report to an actual process, and to become fully integrated with project planning. The proviso is that an initial æfatal flawÆ assessment is required to identify any potential æshow stoppersÆ, in order to meet one of the important objectives of EIA, namely an assessment of whether or not the proposed project is the preferred development intervention in the study area. For more controversial proposals this may require the commissioning of a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), which circumvents some of the limitations of the project level EIA. Whilst confidentiality is a constraint to full disclosure, an open participatory approach to public consultation is essential to add credibility to the EIA process and to gain, at least, the acceptance of the process from the majority of IAPs. Full disclosure is encouraged by organisations such as the International Finance Corporation, who acknowledge that good public consultation costs a lot of money, but bad public consultation costs a lot more! An open approach to disclosure presents understandable difficulties for proponents, as they are required to give up some of their control over the project, and to trust the social scientists engaged in the process. However, independence in the EIA process is critical to its success. This paper will highlight these and other issues by drawing on five case studies to identify lessons learnt, and explore the above themes in more detail.

Jan 1, 2001

By R Dwyer

Iron ore currently mined in Australia generally requires very little beneficiation. However, depleting high-grade resources means that in the future low-grade iron ore deposits will need to be mined to meet the increasing demands of the global steel industry. Along with the increased demand, the industry faces additional pressure to reduce the environmental impact of mining and mineral processing. This has stimulated research beyond incremental improvements to conventional processing into alternative low-impact processes, including biotechnological approaches to mineral processing.Bioflotation and bioflocculation have emerged as relatively recent technologies, in which bacteria and/or their extracellular material may be used as flotation reagents (collectors or modifiers), enabling improved selective separation of minerals. The primary advantage is the production of a selective, environmentally-benign alternative to conventional flotation reagents. A biotechnological approach may also be taken in the beneficiation of high-phosphorous iron ores utilising bacteria capable of iron reduction and phosphorous solubilisation.Samples from three iron ore deposits in Western Australia were examined for bacteria suitable for iron ore benefi ciation. A number of common soil microorganisms including Pseudomonas spp, Limnobacter thiooxidans, Paenibacillus spp, and Ralstonia insidiosa were identified using culture-independent molecular techniques. A number of anaerobic species belonging to the genus Clostridium were also identified in the core samples. Selected aerobic species were enriched and isolated on high nutrient media in the presence of haematite. Several of the isolated strains showed an affinity for iron ore, attaching to haematite in enrichment cultures and further demonstrated through adhesion studies. Other isolated species such as Ralstonia isidiosa and Pseudomonas stutzeri are known to solubilise rock phosphates in soils and have potential for the removal of phosphorous from Australian iron ores.

Jul 11, 2011

By Lawson F

The leaching behaviour of BHAS copper matte in oxygenated acidic sulphate chloride solutions at 85¦C has been studied using samples containing 34% copper, 41% lead and 12% sulphur. Copper sulphide in the matte, essentially Cu2S was found to leach in two distinct stages. Similar to the behaviour of pure chalcocite, copper dissolution in the first stage was affected by the availability of oxygen in solution. The presence of chloride ions in the leachant was essential if there was to be any leaching in the second stage (which usually commenced after about 40% of the copper had been taken into solution). Lead sulphide in the matte was oxidised to lead sulphate and formed a shell around the partially leached matte particles. Electrochemical studies showed that this lead sulphate and/or sulphur produced during leaching can form a passivating layer around the copper sulphide. However, this layer was disrupted when chloride ions were present. A Plackett-Burman analysis was used to determine the species in the recycled leach solution that affect the leaching of copper. Under the experimental conditions used, in the first stage the rate of copper dissolution was influenced by the concentrations of sulphuric acid, Zn(II), Cu(II), Fe(III) and Cd(II). In the second stage, the rate was futher modified by the concentrations of Cl(I) and As(V) ions. In solutions of low acidity and high As(V) concentration, insoluble copper arsenate formed which coated the partially leached matte particles and acted as a barrier to futher reaction.

Jan 1, 1989

By F Shi, W Valery

WMC Fertilizers (WMCF) operates a Beneficiation Plant at Phosphate Hill in Queensland, Australia. The plant consists of two-stages of crushing, followed by a wet scrubbing and desliming circuit. Ore is then fed to a tertiary crusher and a milling/classification circuit, with the final product going to a swing-lift thickener and storage tanks. From the slurry storage tanks, the phosphate rock is fed to a horizontal belt filters which dewater the phosphate rock ahead of a hemi-hydrate phosphoric acid plant. The water soluble recovery of phosphate in the phosphoric acid plant is dependent on the moisture content in the filter cake, as this governs the wash water addition to the hemi-hydrate filters. Since commencement of operation, the moisture content of the filter cake fed to the phosphoric acid plant has been higher than design reducing the phosphoric acid plant recovery and at times reducing the throughput through the phosphoric acid plant. The moisture content in the filter cake can be decreased by reducing the generation of fines in the milling and classification circuit (classified as û38 micron material). This paper identifies the causes of fines generation in the Phosphate Hill beneficiation plant. It discusses the options that were assessed to minimise fines generation, and outlines the results to date of circuit changes undertaken at Phosphate Hill.

Jan 1, 2003

By V Novoselov, R Sabirov

Flotation processing technology of water-soluble minerals has made it possible to realise, since the 1960s, the wide scale industrial processing of potash and potassium-magnesium ores (about 200 million tonnes per year) as well as to create the multi-tonnage worldwide production of sylvite (KCl) for industrial and agricultural application. In this paper the particularities of the effect of reagents (blinders, collectors and frothers) during cation flotation in saturated saline solutions are outlined. New reagent modes for activating the effects of alkylamines during the flotation of KCl and the perfecting of technological flow sheets for processing potassium ore have been developed. The results of research on the reverse flotation of carnallite ore, with the help of alkylmorpholine û a new developing technology for benefication carnallite as raw material for the production of metal magnesium and fertilisers are listed. Examples are given of the industrial applications of processed reagent modes at potash flotation factories in Russia.

Jan 1, 2005

Mining of the Martha Hill epithermal gold deposit via open pit methods will excavate a pit to 15 m below sea level. Regular geotechnical evaluations of pit slopes have taken place. Details of the various components of these evaluations, including geological structure, material strength, and groundwater, are covered. Pitwall geological structures are represented clearly on pit floor grade control maps with the dominant sets being steeply dipping strike fractures. Cross cutting shears are common. Material strength is reflected by the oxidation status of the hydrothermally altered host rocks, with weaker material occurring in partially oxidised ground. Regional groundwater is generally high, particularly on the north-eastern side of the pit, where it has been little affected by de-watering. Geological structures appear to control the flow of groundwater in the proximity of pitwalls and require draining by the introduction of horizontal drains. An overview of pit slope design is given. Slopes are designed for overall slope stability, allowing for the occurrence of minor interbench failures.

Jan 1, 1991

By K J ROSENGREN

Underground rock mechanics was initiated as a formal discipline in Australia by early studies for underground structures for the Snowy Mountains Scheme in the 1950s. These techniques were quickly embraced by underground mining and there has been steady development to the present time. The paper reviews the status of current techniques for rock mechanics studies and discusses some important issues such as ground support, mine filling and caving. It concludes that a considerable degree of engineering judgement is still required for the practical application of rock mechanics to underground mine design.

Jan 1, 1992