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By H. W. McCue, Henry Rogatz

Oil.—In the Texas Panhandle, 502 oil wells were drilled during the year 1940, with a total daily initial production of 139,187 bb1.—that is, 137 more oil wells drilled than in the previous year, with an increase in total daily initial production of 8219 bbl. The total daily potential of the field on Dec. 31, 1940, as determined by the Texas Railroad Commission, was 1,375,502 bbl., an increase of 30,825 bbl. over the previous year. On Dec. 31,1940, a daily allowable of 85,050 bbl., which was a decrease of 35 per cent over 1939, was assigned to the field to be produced from 4788 wells. The total amount of oil produced for the year was 26,788,590 bbl., making a cumulative total of 378,960,728 bbl. during the past 19 years. No new oil-producing acreage was discovered. Gas.—During the year, 92 gas wells were drilled, having a combined open flow of 2,402,900.000 CU. ft.; that is, 6 more than the number of wells drilled in 1939, with an increase in the open flow of 204,900,000 cu. ft. per day. The gas production for the year was 670,435,112,000 CU. ft., and the total gas removed from thc ground during

Jan 1, 1941

By Henry Rogatz, H. W. McCue

Oil.—In the Texas Panhandle, 502 oil wells were drilled during the year 1940, with a total daily initial production of 139,187 bb1.—that is, 137 more oil wells drilled than in the previous year, with an increase in total daily initial production of 8219 bbl. The total daily potential of the field on Dec. 31, 1940, as determined by the Texas Railroad Commission, was 1,375,502 bbl., an increase of 30,825 bbl. over the previous year. On Dec. 31,1940, a daily allowable of 85,050 bbl., which was a decrease of 35 per cent over 1939, was assigned to the field to be produced from 4788 wells. The total amount of oil produced for the year was 26,788,590 bbl., making a cumulative total of 378,960,728 bbl. during the past 19 years. No new oil-producing acreage was discovered. Gas.—During the year, 92 gas wells were drilled, having a combined open flow of 2,402,900.000 CU. ft.; that is, 6 more than the number of wells drilled in 1939, with an increase in the open flow of 204,900,000 cu. ft. per day. The gas production for the year was 670,435,112,000 CU. ft., and the total gas removed from thc ground during

Jan 1, 1941

By R. J. Charles

Previous study of simple impact systems indicated that energy required for fracture and size reduction of brittle materials is greatly dependent on the type of loading that is employed. In this regard it was postulated that fracture and size reduction of a brittle specimen might be accomplished by a high velocity impact at an energy level at which a low velocity impact would leave the specimen relatively undamaged. The finite time required to propagate energy away from the point of loading of an impacted object to other parts of the object and to its supports may permit a concentration of energy at the point of impact if the rate of loading is high. Localizing of energy at the point of impact could quickly initiate fractures that would propagate through the impacted material along with the traveling stress waves. As the cracks form, the initially absorbed strain energy would be released and portions of it travel ahead of the crack tips as stress waves. These secondary stress waves, combined with the initial stress waves derived from the impact, would produce high localized strain conditions in front of the fracture zone. The fracture zone would propagate and the specimen shatter. High rates of loading are brought about by short impact times, in turn obtained by employing high velocity projectiles that are of small mass compared to the impacted object.

Oct 1, 1956

By B. F. Bush

THE coal-fields of Missouri, situated hi the northern and western portion of the State, are distributed, in whole or in part, over 57 counties, embracing an area estimated by Mr. Broad-head to be practically 23,000 sq. miles, including small detached beds and outliers in St. Louis, St. Charles, Lincoln and Warren counties in the eastern part of the State. This area includes about 8,000 sq. miles of Upper or Barren Measures, 2,000 sq. miles of exposed Middle, and 12,420 sq. miles of exposed Lower Measures. In a general way, the Missouri coal-field is bounded on the east by an imaginary line entering the northern part of the State just east of the 92c1 Meridian and passing across the State in a southwesterly direction to a point on the Kansas-Missouri line a little below the southern boundary of Barton county. An important part of the field overlaps this line and extends down the northern side of the Missouri river, under¬lying the greater part of Randolph, Howard, Boone and Audrain counties. In all, 34 counties produced coal during the year 1903. Fig. 1 shows the position of the coal-fields in Missouri. GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. The Coal Measure formations, all of the Carboniferous age, rest unconformably upon the rocks of the sub-Carboniferous or Mississippian series, and, in some cases, upon the rocks of the Devonian and Silurian ages. From their outcrop on the eastern and southeastern borders of the field, the Measures dip west to northwest at the rate of 10 ft. per mile, reaching a maximum thickness estimated by

Jan 1, 1905

I;. D. Godshall, Everett, Wash. (communication to the Secretary) : In Mr. Morse's interesting paper several statements occur which seem to require correction and comment. This is the more appropriate, since Mr. Morse has mentioned me by name, and has cited my "Review of the Russell Process,"* so that silence on my part might be taken as indicating an assent which I cannot give. On the first page of his paper Mr. Morse says that the " goingback " of chlorination was " the only difficulty encountered at Aspen," and adds that he has " never seen any explanation " of the cause. The plain inference is that he now fills this complete

Jan 1, 1896

By C. N. Reid

Slip-line studies on deformed chromium single cvystals showed the usual bcc behavior. At room temperatuve, cross slip was prevalent—slip was not confined to a given plane, but the slip direction was (111). At -10O0K, slip occuvred on (110) planes, twins on(112) planes, and cleavage on (1001 planes. A single-crystal tensile specimen with an axis close to [011] showed a pronounced yield drop and high strain rate sensitivity which zclere used to derive relevant parame tevs in a dislocation dynamics treatment. Transmission electron microscope studies confirmed the existence of (110) slip planes and showed ecidence of loops punched out by precipitates and of grown-in dislocations promoting tangling. OF recent years experimental studies have been made of the deformation characteristics of single-crystal molybdenum and tungsten, but very little has been published on the behavior of single-crystal chromium. During a study of the mechanical properties of chromium, single-crystal studies were made which have already been partially described.&apos; However, additional information was generated which was not directly relevant to the main theme of Ref. 1, and, therefore, was not reported. In view of the need for complete documentation of deformation modes, the experimental observations made on the deformation of single-crystal chromium are summarized here, together with an electron-microscope study of the associated dislocation structures. It was found that, in terms of the deformation modes, chromium is a conventional bcc metal, showing a very pronounced yield-point phenomenon. Further, it was found that the flow strength of these crystals is very sensitive to the strain rate. Finally, the crystals were observed to contain many unidentified precipitates, which often were associated with prismatic dislocation loops. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Single crystals were grown from rods of wrought chromium by the method of zone annealing. Rods of "1/4in.-diam were supported vertically in an argon atmosphere while an induction coil was moved up the rod at 1 in. per hr. The power was adjusted to just below that required for melting, and the process produced single crystals in about 30 pct of the rods used. The orientations of the crystals, in general, lay near [011] and are summarized in Fig. 1. Before this treatment, the wrought material contained 35 pprn C, 68 ppm O, and 12 ppm N.* An analyzed single crystal *Usual metallic impurities found in iodide chromium are: Al, 5 ppm; Ca, A ppm; Cu, 2 ppm; Fe, 75 ppm; Yg, 0.5 ppm; Yn, < 3 ppm; Mo, < 3 ppm; Ni, 4 ppm; Si, < 20 ppm; Ti, < 1 ppm; V, 4 ppm; Zr, < 3 ppm. contained 10 pprn C, 79 ppm O, and 50 pprn N. Tension and compression specimens were shaped from the crystals by mechanical grinding, followed by the electrolytic removal of about 0.010 in. from the surface in a perchloric/acetic acid bath. All specimens had a gage length of 0.75 in., and tension specimens had a diameter of 0.100 in., while that of the compression samples was 0.200 in. Mechanical tests were carried out at a rate of 1.3 pct per min, and temperatures below 0°C were attained by means of a nitrogen cryostat similar to that of Wessel.2 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Modes of Deformation. In addition to the tensile properties of these crystals, which are described in Ref. 1, deformation markings on the surface were studied. Crystals A and F, Fig. 1, were deformed in tension at 300°K to 10 and 16 pct strain, respectively. The surfaces contained visible slip lines, about 1 C( apart, composed of both straight and wavy segments. They did not define a single plane, and so determination of the slip plane was not possible. However, the slip direction was deduced by comparing the axial orientations of the crystals before and after deformation. Fig. 2 is representative, and shows that the axis ro-

Jan 1, 1968

By W. C. Hayes

The site selected for the United States prototype pumped storage project of Union Electric CO. was Proffit Mountain, five miles from Taum Sauk, the highest point in Missouri. Factors influencing final location were: high local relief; satisfactory rock type and structure; and an economic location in respect to existing transmission systems. The upper reservoir was constructed by excavating rhyolite porphyry from the crest of Proffit Mountain and constructing a rock fill dike encircling the area to form a 4350-acre foot reservoir. A 6564-ft tunnel connects the upper reservoir with the generating and pumping facilities. A concrete gravity dam on the East Fork of the Black River forms the 6350-acre foot lower reservoir. Precambrian rhyolite porphyry forms the crest of Proffit Mountain and the floor of the upper reservoir. The tunnel was excavated in rhyolite prophpy, granite porphyry, dolomite, shales and conglomerate. Abutments and the foundation of the gravity dam are in rhyolite porphyry, and much of the valley floor of the lower reservoir is underlain by dolomite and shale. Core drilling provided data on soundness of rock type, structure, depth of weathered zone and potential water loss in the fractured igneous rocks. After a six-year study of pumped storage and cost comparison with alternate stream generating units, the Taum Sauk pumped storage project was authorized by Union Electric Co. on Dec. 11, 1959.&apos; The site selected is located in the St. Francois Mountains of southeast Missouri approximately 90 miles south of St. Louis (Fig. 1). The lower reservoir was provided by damming the East Fork of the Black River, a small tributary of the Black River with a minimum flow of about 1 sec ft. Construction of the upper reservoir was effected by quarrying the crest of Proffit Mountain - five miles from Taum Sauk Mountain, the highest point in Missouri — to provide material for a rock fill dike surrounding the quarried area. This provided a 55-acre mountain top lake with a water depth of 92 ft (Fig. 2). A vertical shaft and tunnel connect the upper and lower reservoirs through the two reversible pump-turbine motor-generator units operating under 800 ft of hydraulic head (Fig. 3). The output rating of the plant is 350,000 kw with daytime generation of about 2.2 million kw-hr under normal use. Night pumping will replenish water to the upper reservoir in about 91/2 hours3. The automatic operation is remotely controlled from the Osage plant and from the dispatchers office in St. Louis. GENERAL GEOLOGY Mountains of the St. Francois area consist of Precambrian granites, granite porphyries, extrusive fel-sites and basic dikes. Basal conglomerates overlain by Upper Cambrian Bonneterre dolomites and shales onlap the exhumed Precambrian knobs and hills and are exposed in the narrow valleys. Cambrian and Ordovician residuum as much as 200 ft thick is present on the slopes of many hills. Proffit Mountain consists of rhyolite porphyry and granite porphyry. All excavation for the upper reservoir was in rhyolite porphyry, and the same rock is present under the Bonneterre at the plant site and under alluvium at the lower reservoir dam site. The region has been dissected to the stage of early maturity with only small upland flats remaining. Considerable local relief (a requisite for the project) approaches 1000 ft. Streams flowing across the Precambrian ridges have formed restricted narrows, termed shut-ins. A shut-in approximately two miles downstream from the plant site provides an excellent site for the lower reservoir dam. TEST BORINGS Preliminary to final approval of the project, 12 test borings were made to determine subsurface geologic conditions (Fig. 2). Drill hole No. 12 at the lower reservoir dam site showed 20 ft of alluvium over solid rhyolite porphyry. Drill holes No. 1, 2 and 3 were drilled in the tail race area to depths of 66 ft, 75 ft and 95 ft respectively, and all bottomed in Bonneterre. Drill hole No. 4 at the plant site provided NX core to a total depth of 98 ft in Bonneterre. Drill

Jan 1, 1965

ALEXANDER BRYDEN Alexander Bryden, clean of engineers in the anthracite mining field, and a member of the pioneer Pittston family, was claimed by death Wednesday, September 26, 1917. The announcement was not a surprise, as he had been in a critical condition for several days. Mr. Bryden had been in failing health for a year past, but his indomitable will kept him at his accustomed duties until quite recently. Two weeks before his death he attended the regular weekly meeting of the Board of Directors of the Miners&apos; Savings Bank in Pittston, Pa. At that time he apparently felt that his end was fast approaching, as he bade farewell to his associates on the bank board. Until a few days before the end, he continued to give attention to business matters at his home, in preparation for the end, which he met unflinchingly. In the passing of Mr. Bryden, northeastern Pennsylvania loses one of the best-known mining engineers, and the community, a man who, throughout his long life, was actively interested in its social welfare and business prosperity. He was for many years prominent in the management of the mining operations of the Pennsylvania Coal Co., and at the time of his death held the position of consulting engineer of the Pennsylvania and Hillside Coal. Companies.

Jan 12, 1917

By GEORGE ROBERT DE BEQUE

WHAT is wrong with oil shale? The answer is of interest to the public, to the oil refiner, and to the engineer. Many people have invested in shale land or shale securities, and others would invest if early development of the industry were certain. In the face of increasing demands for oil products, oil refiners are threatened with inability to maintain present output unless the supply of domestic petroleum is supplemented. Development of the oil shale industry would open a new field for engineering services. The object of this paper is to suggest reasons why there is but one shale plant in operation in the United States, and to discuss the probable time when the business will be firmly established in Colorado. As the Colorado deposits are the richest and largest in the world, ample supply of material is assured, consequently, this discussion will be confined principally to technical problems and economic problems affecting shale development.

Jan 1, 1924

By N. A. D. Parlee, I. D. Shah

THIS communication reports the results of some work done on the effect of gold, palladium, and platinum on the liquid-gas-solid equilibrium in the Ag-O system,1,2 see Fig. 1. Recently several investigators3, 4, 5 have reported the effects of gold, palladium, platinum, and copper on the solubility of oxygen in liquid silver. This communication represents only a portion of the work done here on the solubility of oxygen in liquid silver and liquid Ag-Au, Ag-Pd, and Ag-Pt alloyss—the greater part having already been reprted. The apparatus, materials, and procedures used were similar to those of earlier work.&apos; l The main precautions observed in obtaining these freezing points at constant temperature and PO2 = 1 atm were as follows: 1) The points were approached very slowly from higher temperatures. 2) In the very near vicinity of the L-G-S equilibrium point precautions were taken to see that the melt was in equilibrium with oxygen at one atm. Equilibrium was considered to have been attained when no more absorption of oxygen was observed in the last 15 min at a fixed temperature. 3) In the case of these alloys, the freezing point of the melt at 1 atm of oxygen and the equilibrium amount of oxygen absorbed by the liquid "infinitesimally" above this point were determined by lowering the temperature in very, very small steps, equilibrating at

Jan 1, 1969

By William F. Boericke

THE Christy Creek clay mine of the General Refractories Co., in the Olive Hill District, ranks with the most important producers in the north-eastern Kentucky fire clay field, both from production of high-grade flint clay, as well as unusual extent and thickness of deposit. The property is but one of a number controlled by the General Refractories Co. in this district, but is given first consideration among them by the operating staff. Its total area is over 5000 acres, owned in fee or by lease of clay mining rights, and although mining operations have been in progress for over five years, scarcely one per cent of the ground has been worked as yet. The mine is near the southwestern end of the clay field, which extends in a belt 12 miles wide and 55 miles long, in a southwestern direction from Kenova, W. Va., which, as the name indicates, is at the junction of Kentucky, Ohio, and West Virginia. Olive Hill, where there is one of the l1Ulin plants of the General Refractories Co., and to which the clay from the mine is shipped, is about 26 miles distant from the mine. Connection is made with the Chesapeake & Ohio R. R. by a spur line . 8 miles in length, owned and operated by the company.

Jan 1, 1929

By John M. Kelly

New Mexico produced 39,475,388 bbl. of oil in 1944, the greatest amount in one year in the oil history of the state. This production was 593,046 bbl. or 1.25 per cent more than in 1943. New Mexico retained its position as the seventh largest oil-producing state. The maximum per well allowable on Jan. I, 1944 was 48 bbl. daily and at the end of the year it was 45 bbl. daily. Allocations as set by the New Mexico Oil Conservation Commission closely followed the recommendations made by the&apos; Petroleum Administrator for War. The average daily pipe-line runs were within 4 per cent of the allocation. Production by counties was as fol1ows;Lea County, 33,509,548 bbl.; Eddy County, 5,504,498; Northwestern New Mexico 461, 342. Drilling activity for New Mexico in 1944 was well above that of 1943, with 362 completions. Of these, 283 were oil wells, 12 gas wells and 67 dry holes. The ratio of dry holes to producers, about I to 4, was an improvement over 1943. Wildcat drilling during 1944 was responsible for the discovery of six new fields and the extension of two present producing areas. Drilling records were established in New Mexico during 1944 with the deepest producer ever completed, the Humble Leonard Oil Company&apos;s No. I at 11,969 ft., in the Ellenburger section of Ordovician age near Jal, Lea County. The discoveries in Lea County during 1944 were as follows: West Lovington field, where Fred Turner, Jr. drilled his No. I State B .in C SE SW sec. 4-17-36 and completed it for 122 bbl. of oil in 8 1/2 hr., in the San Andreas section of Permian age. The Tonto field, where the T-exas Company completed its No. I Baskin at a total depth of 3586 ft. in Seven Rivers lime of Permian age, with an initial production of 254 bbl. of oil in 21 hours. The Drinkard area, where the Gulf Oil Corporation&apos;s Drinkard No. I flowed 782 bbl. of oil in 14 hr. from the Yeso section of lower Permian age, thus opening the first lower Permian production in the state. The total depth of this discovery was 6508 ft. and oil was 38.8" A.P.I. gravity. The Dublin area, where the Humble Oil and Refining Co. established a drilling depth record of 11,969 ft. drilling and completing its No. I Leonard Oil Co. well in the Ellenburger lime of Ordovician age. This well flowed 221 bbl. of oil per day, of 48.9º A.P.I. gravity oil. It is in sec. 12-26-37. The new pay horizon discovery of the Continental Oil Co. in the Skaggs area, where the company completed its Skaggs B-23 No. 2 in sec. 23-20-37 for 236 bbl. of oil in 21 hr. from the Wolfcamp section of lower Permian age, at a total depth of 7725 ft. This well was drilled to granite at 10,465 ft. and plugged back to the Wolf-camp for a new pay zone completion.

Jan 1, 1945

By Milton F. Goodrich

The idea of using water-only cyclones to scalp clean coal from the feed to other devices has recently been gaining in popularity.l,2,6 An indication of this popularity is that water- only cyclone scalping is already employed in a few commercial plants. Water-only cyclones scalp the feed to a heavy media vessel in the Warwick plant,3 to Deister tables in the Rowland plant,4 and to a heavy media cyclone circuit in the Amherst Coal Company&apos;s McGregor plant.5 Despite this trend, we found surprisingly little information in the literature on the performance of water-only cyclone scalping. Therefore, we undertook a study of its technical merits, limiting our investigation to a water-only cyclone scalper in conjunction with heavy-media cyclones. We felt this to be a reasonable combination of equipment, since both processes operate well on the same size coal. First, we developed simple mathematical relationships revealing general characteristics of the system. Next, we compared the clean coal yield and quality obtainable by the system on four different coals with that obtainable by heavy-media cyclone circuit alone and water-only cyclones middlings recirculation circuit alone. This was done by using computer program to simulate the operation of the three systems. Finally, we considered the effect that implementation of the system would have on a typical preparation plant circuit.

Jan 10, 1978

By R. M. Brick

Segregation can occur only in cast alloys that solidify over a range of temperatures with a difference in composition of liquid and solid phases within this range (ignoring monotectic systems and chemical reactions as in rimming steels). Thus a pure binary eutectic alloy should show no segregation unless undercooling occurs for one of the solid constituents of the eutectic; e.g., chill-cast Al-I2 per cent Si alloys. The phasial condition implicitly described above—solidification over a range of temperatures with a compositional difference between solid and liquid—is found in nearly all solid solutions or combinations of solid solutions and eutec-tics, Metastable conditions of solidification of these types of alloys cause coring; i.e., a difference in composition between the center of a dendrite and its periphery. This composition gradient can be detected usually only by microscopic examination of etched structures; it is a "micro" effect. The gradient of more immediate industrial concern is that between the center of a cast section and the surface layers. This gross (macro) effect is usually deter-minable only by sampling of the casting at different points, with chemical analyses of each sample. If the compositional difference is of the same type as in coring, the first parts to freeze being enriched in higher-melting-point constituents, and vice versa, the effect is called normal segregation. When what is apparently the first part of the casting to solidify shows a higher concentration of low-melting-point constituents, the effect is called inverse segregation. These macro effects are quite separate from the micro effect, coring, yet the latter must be described first because it is an essential part of the picture. Coring Solid Solution, Ni-Cu The nickel-copper phase diagram is reproduced in Fig. Ia, in which the solid lines represent the equilibrium liquidus I, 3, 7 and solidus 2, 5, 8, and where the vertical I, 4: 8 represents a 55 per cent Cu alloy. Upon moderately rapid solidification, the first dendritic axes of composition 2 (see Fig. Ib) start to form at a temperature somewhat under I. Solidification continues by growth of the dendritic nuclei, but at temperature 4 the increment solidifying is of composition 5. The rapidity of this crystal growth prevents diffusion of nickel and copper atoms from adjusting the composition of the entire dendrite at 5, which it would be under equilibrium conditions. The average composition of a specific dendrite, or the entire solid phase, at temperature 4 might be that indicated

Jan 1, 1945

By R. Simon

The sources of energy dissipation for concentrated loadings on rock are considered in an attempt to account for the experimentally measured magnitude of the work required to break out a unit volume of rock from the free surface of an essentially semi-infinite medium. It is concluded that most of this work probably represents the elastic strain energy developed by the loading in a much larger volume of rock beneath the loaded region than the volume of the rock fragment broken out to the side of the loaded region. This strain energy is largely dissipated in the form of stress waves generated by the high rate of unloading produced by the propagating cracks. The energies associated with the formation of the new surfaces of the cracks and with the stress waves generated directly by the loading process are computed to be negligibly small. Possibilities for improving the utilization of energy to drill rod. subject to the geometrical limitations imposed by down-hole operation, are discussed. It is pointed out that any such possible improvements would probably have to be differential ones, since each rock configuration of more favorabIe loading geometry that can be created down the hole is accompanied by a complementary configuration of less favorable loading geometry. INTRODUCTION Dislodging each cubic inch of rock from the bottom of the hole by the action of a bit requires the expenditure of an amount of energy that varies from approximately 5,000 in.-lb to approximately 100,000 in.-lb, depending on the hardness of the rock, or, more technically, upon its fragmentation strength.1 In this paper we will discuss (I) why the energy expended in drilling is so large, (2) what happens to this energy upon completion of the drilling process, and (3) what are the possibilities for reducing the magnitude of the energy required to drill rock. DETERMINATION OF ROCK DRILLING ENERGY The volume of rock removed per unit time from the bottom of a hole of diameter D is evidently (7/4)D2R, where R is the rate of penetration of the bit. If P is the rate at which work is done by the bit on the rock at the bottom of the hole, the energy required to break out a unit volume of rock is given by: Ev =(4/p) P/D2R............(i) For rotary drilling, of either the rolling-cone or drag-bit varicty, P = 2pLN, where L is the torque resistance to rotation at the bottom of the hole and N is the rate of rotation of the bit. L is essentially the same as the torque measured at the rotary table only when drilling in shallow holes. The energies expended in rotating the drill string against the frictional resistance of the walls of the hole and and against the viscous drag of the drilling fluid are extraneous to the subject under consideration, although these may be much greater in magnitude than E, when drilling in a deep hole. For percussion drilling, P = fE where f is the percussion frequency and E is the work done on the rock per impact. The latter quantity can be both computed and measured for a percussion drilling machine. 2 (Under satisfactory drilling conditions, defined in terms of ranges of numerical values of certain dimensionless parameters, E is only 30 to 50 per cent less than the impact energy of the striker.2) Alternatively, E, may be measured directly by dropping chisels shaped like bit edges, backed by rigid weights, onto the surfaces of laboratory rock samples of effectively semi-infinite extent. Under these circumstances, essentially all of the impact energy is converted to work done on the rock, and the relationships among volume of rock broken out, chisel shape, impact energy and indexing distances can be obtained.3 The values of the energy required to break out a unit volume of rock under favorable circumstances are substantially in agreement for rotary drilling, percussion drilling and drop testing at atmospheric pressure. The energy per unit volume is a quantity of the order of magnitude of roughly twice the com-pressive strength of the rock as measured by a uniaxial loading test. The phrase "order of magnitude" in this paper means from about 1/3 as much to 3 times as much; i.e., the energy per unit volume may range from roughly the same up to several times

By T. M. Daulton, Chester F. Lee

The Atlin Mining District is in the northwest corner of the Province of British Columbia. Ruby Creek, where the operation to be described is situated, is 17 miles east of the town of Atlin and about 18 miles south of the south line of Yukon Territory (Fig. 1). Gold was discovered in the district in January, 1898, and the production to date from placer mines has been $4,518,000, according to the reports of the Minister of Mines for the province. Geology The essential points in the regional geology are given in the following paragraphs. Long erosion produced a plane-like surface slightly above sea level with a few peaks and ridges.&apos; A gradual uplift followed and erosion increased, the streams cut deeper, the cuts so made being afterward increased by glaciation. The ice straightened and planed the slopes of the main valleys and widened and lowered their floors, in some cases flooring the valleys with silt, sand, gravel, and clay. As the glaciers rapidly retreated, lakes were formed. As to the origin of the gold, J. C. Gwillim says? "The Surprise granite has been carried northward toward Gladys Lake and Teslin, and the granite of the great plateau on the Taku trail was found in blocks on the opposite range across Hurricane River 10 miles north of its original position. Otherwise there is little evidence of far removed material, the boulders of the lake shore and creek beds being of local appearance. This appears to strengthen the opinion that the placer gold had its origin within the drainage basins where it is now found." In the gold-bearing creeks of the Atlin district there are two "runs"

Jan 1, 1917

By Cyril Stanley Smith, Earl W. Palmer

FOR several years an investigation has been in progress in the research laboratory of The American Brass Co. to determine the thermal and electrical conductivities of most copper alloys of commercial importance and several of scientific interest. This paper contains such data on the binary alloys of copper with silicon, aluminum, manganese and nickel, and on a large number of ternary or more complex alloys. Some interesting general relationships between the thermal and electrical conductivities for all copper alloys at all temperatures are pointed out. The data for the copper-zinc, copper-phosphorus and copper-tin binary systems have already been publishedl 1,2 † except for the electrical conductivity at 200° C., which is given in the appendix of this paper. LITERATURE ON THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF COPPER ALLOYS The papers referred to above contained a summary of the figures available in 1929 for the thermal conductivity of copper alloys. There is given in Table 1 herewith a selection of the data that have appeared since that time. The measurements of Hanson and Rogers3 are particularly interesting since they cover a series of alloys in the alpha solid solution range and show the effect of heat-treatment. Their alloys were tested as annealed castings, and are not therefore directly comparable to the worked alloys measured in the present investigation, although the difference is small. Bailey&apos;s determinations4 were carried out on the alloys used by Lees5 in 1906, and extend his results to higher temperatures. It is most unfortunate that the alloys were not analyzed, for the approximate compositions given are hardly sufficient identification of the

Jan 1, 1935

By Jeffrey L. Thompson, Kenneth A. Gutschick, Robert C. Freas, Robert S. Boynton

Lime, the "versatile chemical," is, generally speaking, a calcined or burned form of limestone commonly known as quicklime, calcium oxide or calcia, or, when water is added, calcium hydroxide or slaked lime. Almost 40 different lime products are available, a fact which has contributed to the rather loose use of the term lime as well as to much confusion and misunderstanding. The term is frequently, albeit erroneously, used to denote almost any kind of calcareous material or finely ground form of limestone or dolomite. Lime is usually made from high-calcium or high-magnesium limestone, generally having a minimum of 97% combined carbonate content. Normally, high-calcium limes contain less than 5% MgO. When the lime is produced from a high-magnesium limestone, the product is referred to as dolomitic lime. Calcination, or the production of lime, has its origins in the earliest days of alchemy, with the general reaction class having been identified in an Arabic text printed in 1000 A.D. It was much later, however, in the mid-1700s to the mid-1800s before this basic reaction became understood from a scientific perspective. The production of lime has been so basic and simple that its underlying scientific principles have over the years received only intermittent investigation. Rather, much of the thought and inquiry has been directed toward the development of kilns. Thus, it has only been in the last 15 to 20 years that lime has received any concentrated scientific investigation relative to the thermodynamics and kinetics of the calcination and hydration reactions. Calcination refers to a broad class of reactions, of which the lime/limestone reaction is just one, wherein a substance is heated to less than its melting point, resulting in a weight gain or weight loss. In the calcination of limestone to produce lime, the basic chemical reaction is as follows: [CaCO3 (limestone) + heat (1000° to 1300°C)= 100 CaO (quicklime) + CO2 T 5644 or CaCO3 • MgCO3 (limestone) 10084 + heat (900°C to 1200°C) CaO • MgO (quicklime) + 2CO2 T 56 4088] While there is nearly universal agreement about the equilibrium conditions related to the limestone/lime reaction above, there have been numerous and varied calcination models developed for the reaction. Recent investigations have resulted in the development of the model shown in Fig. 1. From this model it can be seen that calcination is a function of both temperature and CO2 pressure. It does not, however, provide any indication of the rate at which the reaction takes place. Calcination is strongly time variant with different limestones. In a very broad sense this relates to the fact that the calcination reaction starts on the exterior surface of the limestone and then proceeds toward the center. As the calcination reaction takes place, the CO2 released at the reaction interface must make its way through the lime to the exterior surface. Therefore, because calcination is limited by gas diffusion to the surface of the partially calcined limestone, natural impurities in the stone, differences in crystallinity, grain boundary chemistry, density variations, and imperfections in the atomic lattice all play a significant role in

Jan 1, 1983

By A. T. Aldred

HIS note reports the existence of several new scandium intermetallic compounds of the A2B and AB stoichiometries where the A element is scandium and the B element is from group VIII or IB of the periodic table. Alloys were arc melted from high-purity materials using 2-g charges. Typical lot analyses for the materials used are given in Table I. Chemical analyses were not made on the alloys as there was little or no weight loss on melting. After annealing the specimens for 14 days at 600°C and water quenching, metallographic and X-ray techniques were used to determine the occurrence of the various phases. Table II lists the relevant data for the A2B phases. The Ti2Ni structure,2 has ninety-six atoms in a face-centered cubic cell, whilst the Al2Cu structure is body-centered tetragonal.3 The occurrence and stability of the various A2B type phases in transition metal alloy systems has recently been considered by Nevitt.4 The Ti2 Ni-type phases occur over a relatively narrow range of radius ratios from 1.14-1.26 with A partners mainly from the titanium group and B partners predominantly from the cobalt group. This suggests that both a favorable relative size of the atoms and a favorable electron concentration are necessary conditions for the existence of this structure type. A12Cu-type phases involving Ti group elements as A partners are formed with B partners from the cobalt and nickel groups, predominantly the latter, and have a higher radius ratio (1.27-1.29) than the Ti2Ni-type phases. The occurrence of both Sc2Pd and Sc2Co can be rationalized in terms of these considerations but SczNi is anomalous because of its high radius ratio. The radius ratios are calculated from the Goldschmidt CN12 radii and it might be postulated that the scandium atom is reduced in size in the compound. Unfortunately the apparent atomic size of scandium in the compound cannot be calculated from a knowledge of the structure and lattice dimensions. The crystal structure of the Sc2Au compound could not be identified from the powder diffraction pattern, but it is interesting to note that it is isostructural with a series of A2Au phases where A is a rare earth element.5 Pertinent information concerning the AB phases found in this investigation is given in Table 111. All the phases have the ordered bcc CsCl structure. The occurrence and stability of CsC1-type phases have recently been discussed by Dwight,7 who concludes that the relative sizes of the atoms do not appear to be a controlling factor (the radius ratios of all the known phases vary between 0.985 and 1.439) but that the occurrence of the phase is predominantly dependent on the relative positions of the A and B partners in the periodic table. As a measure of the stability of a given CsCl phase it has been customary to define a lattice contraction on alloying, DAB — dAB, where DAB is the AB interatomic spacing as calculated from the Goldschmidt CN8 radii and dAB is the AB interatomic distance in the compound (= v3/2 ao). Values of the parameter DscB -dScB for the compounds found in this investigation are given in column 5 of Table III and are plotted in Fig. 1. If the lattice contraction does in fact reflect the stability of a phase then Fig. 1 shows two very interesting trends when the position of the B partner in the periodic table is considered. Firstly, within any given group the stability increases in order on going from the first to third long period. Secondly, within any given period the stability increases in order as the B partner is taken from the copper, nickel, and cobalt groups. In the case of the second long period, the lattice contraction reaches a maximum at ScRh and then decreases to ScRu. The same trend could

Jan 1, 1962

By R. A. Graham, R. W. Rohde, J. R. Holland

In a shock wave compression study of a martensitic Fe-30 pct Ni alloy, Graham, Anderson, and Holland&apos; found a region of unusual compressibility extending from a few kilobars up to about 20 kbars. This region was characterized by a continuously decreasing shock wave velocity with increasing stress. In this note, we report the results of a study initiated to determine the source of this unusual compressibility. In earlier shock-loading experiments on martensitic Fe-30 pct Ni, Loree et a1.&apos; determined that a phase change occurred at about 80 kbars. Subsequently, Bowden and elly found that samples of a similar material shock-loaded at about 100 kbars experienced a martensite-to-austenite transition. Their crystal-lographic analysis showed the transition was a direct reversal of the established martensite system to the austenite phase. The shock loading in the present experiments was accomplished by precisely controlled plane impact between two discs of the sample material. This configuration created a state of uniaxial strain in the two the front of a projectile which was accelerated to various velocities. Planarity between the impacting discs was controlled to 5 x 10-4 rad, and impact velocities were measured to 0.5 pct. From a knowledge of the Hugoniot relationships of the material and the impact velocity, the shock-wave stress can be calculated. Samples were shocked at 18, 50, 70, and 100 kbars. The specimen discs shocked at 18 and 50 kbars were instrumented with quartz gages to observe the stress time profile. A more detailed description of the experiment has been given previously.4 The shock-loaded specimens were recovered intact by decelerating them in a catcher filled with soft wood. Discs of Fe-30 pct Ni nominally 12.7 mm thick and 64 mm in diam were cut from bar stock. Chemical analysis of the material provided the following composition in weight percents: 29.5 Ni, 0.50 Mn, 0.21 Si, and 0.10 C, with traces of Cr, Cu, Mo, Al, and Co. The discs were austenitized at 650° C for 2 hr at a pressure of less than l0-&apos; torr, and furnace-cooled. Martensite was then produced by quenching the discs at -196" and holding 168 hr. The initial martensitic structure formed is shown in Fig. l(a). Typical microstructures of samples shock-loaded at 18 and 100 kbars are shown in Figs. l(b) and l(c). The banded structure with the austenite regions running parallel to the shock propagation direction was characteristic of samples shock-loaded at all stresses. No such banding was found in samples that were not shock-loaded. Comparison of Figs. l(b) and l(c) shows that, although under the optical microscope the two microstructures are quite similar, the martensite plates of the specimen shocked at 100 kbars etched in a distinctly different manner. This unique etching behavior of martensite in samples shock-loaded above the 80 kbar transition point has also been observed by Leslie el al.&apos; These investigators determined from X-ray and electron microscope studies that fcc martensite, similar in appearance to normal bcc martensite, had been formed under shock loading. A quantitative determination of the amount of austenite present after shock loading was made by X-ray techniques. Both the methods of Lindren&apos; and Miller&apos; were utilized. The results are shown in Table I. The error limits are those experimentally observed from two independent analyses of each sample and represent the precision of the experiment. The absolute error, which should be similar for each sample, is believed to be about 10 pct. It is seen that as the shock stress increases the amount of austenite present also increases. On the basis of the X-ray and microscopic observations, we conclude that shock loading below the 80 kbar ersal will initiate a martensitic reversal: the amount of reversal that occurs increases with in-

Jan 1, 1969