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By AIME AIME

AT the meeting of the Iron and Steel Division at Cleveland, Sept. 10-12, the morning of Thursday, Sept. 12, has been set aside for an excursion to visit the ore docks, blast furnaces, and steel plants. A special train, made available through the courtesy of Appleton Cleveland, general superintendent of the Pennsylvania Railroad, will leave the siding near the Auditorium at 8.35 a. m. The trip will be free, but tickets must be' obtained in advance at the booths for registration for excursions at the Auditorium. An hour will be spent at the docks, an hour at the Central blast furnaces, and two hours at the Cuyahoga works of the American Steel and Wire Co. A buffet luncheon will be served, with the compliments of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co., on board the train en route. At the Tuesday morning session, Sept. 10, a motion picture showing the operations in making wrought iron by the Aston process will be shown for the first time.

Jan 1, 1929

By George Rice

INSTANTANEOUS outbursts of gas in underground workings are similar in effect to great blasts of explosives, but without heat effects. Fortunately they occur only in a few localities in exceptional coal fields of the world and under exceptional geologic conditions. Such violent outbursts should not be compared with the ordinary outflows of gas into coal mines or with explosions of gas and dust. The phenomenon is essentially one of gas held in circumscribed areas under very high pressure and as a mining face or heading approaches such a place and the mining excavation sufficiently weakens the natural surrounding dam or shell, this is burst by the pressure just as by the discharge of a mass of explosives. The outbursts, so far as known to the writer, have been confined to coal beds and have not occurred in other mineral deposits. Hence, as discussed later, he believes that it is the relation of the gases to the coal material that is a factor in conjunction with others in producing conditions which permit the phenomena to occur when mining is done. The gases in most instantaneous outbursts have been hydrocarbon gases but in two coal fields they have been definitely found to be chiefly or wholly carbon dioxide. One of these localities in which CO2 outbursts have been frequent and have caused loss of life is in the southern part of the Gard basin, near Alais, in southern France. In 1919, the writer visited the Fontaine mine in this field the day following the occurrence of an outburst by which two men were smothered by carbon dioxide and fine dust. After 24 hr. the CO2 had not been entirely removed by the ventilating current. Occasional outbursts of CO2 have also occurred in other small basins in France, causing accidents, as in Puy-de-Dome. However, mines in the Gard basin, north of those in which CO2 outbursts have occurred, have experienced hydrocarbon gas outbursts.

Jan 1, 1931

Jan 1, 1968

By AIME AIME

LEADING off the Thursday morning session on Non-metallics was C. E. Heinrichs' paper, "Phosphate Flotation, Its Place in the Technology and Economics of the Phosphate Industry." Mr. Heinrichs also presented a closely related paper, "Milling Methods and Costs at the No. 2 Concentrator of the Phosphate Recovery Corporation," by H. S. Martin. The first of the papers points out the great significance of flotation to the phosphate industry, inasmuch as flotation practically doubles the potential recovery, thereby decreasing production costs and increasing reserves materially. The second paper describes three such plants, two of which are in Florida, the third being at Wales, Tenn. Operating characteristics and costs are reviewed. Answering inquiries from the floor, Mr. Heinrichs said that the adoption of a new parallel-shell dryer, from 60 to 80 ft. long, instead of the old single-shell countercurrent dryer, had increased the unit drying capacity over 300 per cent and had reduced the drying cost to less than 25c. per long ton of dried product. The initial moisture is from 15 to 18 per cent and the final about 2 per cent.

Jan 1, 1933

The President was authorized to appoint. a liaison committee to cooperate with the American Mining Congress in respect to the establishment of a Secretary of Mines and Mining in the President's Cabinet. He appointed Edwin Ludlow, Chairman; Mark L. Requa, and J. E. Johnson, Jr. It was resolved to accept the invitation from the Chicago Section to hold the. 120th meeting of the Institute in Chicago during the week of Sept. 15, 1919. The action of the Executive Committee in appointing Past President E. Gybbon Spilsbury as representative of this Institute to visit France upon the invitation of the Société des Ingénieurs Civils de France was approved. The final budget for 1918 was approved. Tile President was authorized to appoint a committee, of three members, on the Development of Activities of the Institute. The committee was requested to report at the February meeting of the Institute, and the Secretary was requested to invite each local section to have a member present to discuss the subject. The President appointed J. W. Richards, Chairman; P. N. Moore, and Allen H. Rogers. Thirty-six members, ten associates, and five junior associates were elected; one change of status from associate to member was granted; two members were reinstated; and eight resignations were accepted. An extension of time was granted to nine members. The dues of eight members were suspended on account of their being in active service.

Jan 2, 1919

By Albert J. Phillips

FOR the most part, recent changes in nonferrous physical metallurgy have been gradual and of a transition nature rather than abrupt modifications of existing methods. Development of new alloys containing vital constituents in what formerly would have been considered minute amounts has necessitated more precise control of metallurgical procedure than ever before. Realization of the remarkable effects of minute amounts of specific foreign elements in many alloys has brought about a revolutionary control in the selection of even the most commonplace raw materials. In addition, recognition of the widespread occurrence of precipitation hardness in metal systems, and the utilization of many of these, has emphasized not only the need for precise temperature control but also the necessity for considering the time factor in its effect upon properties in the treatment of most metals. These needs have caused the development and widespread installation of equipment that permits precision of control undreamed of a generation ago.

Jan 1, 1935

By Kenneth Robertson

ALL, strangers visiting this district are struck with the peculiar manner in which the pig-iron is graded. There are eleven regular grades, besides which, when gray forge is ordered, one-half of Nos. 1 and 2 Mill are shipped. Occasionally there is another grade Known as Silver Mill, which is made so seldom that I cannot describe it, and have no sample to exhibit. Most of you have found it difficult to grade properly and uniformly under the simpler system which obtains elsewhere, and can consequently readily imagine the increased difficulty with us. Each furnace employs an " expert," and even with this precaution, the system is not conducive, at all times, to amicable relations between buyers and sellers. I am told that it was adopted at the time Southern irons were seeking a market; but it still remains, although the time has come when our iron is sought for and has obtained for itself a place in the markets of the country. The grades are as follows:

Jan 1, 1889

By J. F. Tavernelli, L. F. Coffin

The deformation and fracture characteristics of eight metals subjected to fully reversed cyclic strain ranging from 0.2 to 50 pct were investigated at room temperature. Strain-hardening characteristics unique to the interna1 structure of a particular metal were found. Complete removal of the strain-hardening effects resulting from prior deformation was brought about by subsequent cyclic strain. Further support for the validity of the inverse relationship between the plastic strain range and the square root of the number of cycles for failure is given. THE resistance of materials to cyclic plastic strain is of interest both from a fundamental and practical point of view. It is now a well-accepted fact that fatigue failure in metals is a consequence of the localized slip deformation which occurs within the individual crystals of metal.'-' Hence the failure process should be strongly dependent upon the magnitude of the gross cyclic plastic deformation of the metal under conditions where this is a measurable quantity. Therefore, an experimental investigation of metals in which the cyclic plastic strain is the independent variable should shed new light on some of the basic aspects of the problem. From the practical point of view, there are many uses for information relating to the cyclic strain resistance of metals. One is the case of thermal stress fatigue where fatigue failure can occur as a consequence of a com- paratively few cycles of thermally induced mechanical deformation. Another is the mechanical working of metals where large cyclic strains are employed. In recent years several publications have appeared relating to the cyclic-strain resistance of metals,8-11 dealing mostly with the fracture aspects where the temperature is cycled simultaneously with the mechanical strain. Some work has been reported on the cyclic-strain resistance of metals at constant temperature, again oriented more toward the fracture aspects of the problem than the deformation aspects. 12-16 The present research investigation was undertaken to obtain information regarding the deformation characteristics of several metals whose structure-property relationships were simple and straightforward under conditions of both cyclic and monotonic strain. It has been shown for example that under cyclic-strain conditions some materials will strain harden, while other materials, particularly cold-worked structures, strain soften and these effects required further clarification.8,17-19 It was also de-

Jan 1, 1960

By D. S. Kingery, D. W. Mitchell

The authors attended the 11th International Conference of Directors of Safety in Mines Research held in France, July 1963. In addition to Conference discussions pertaining to control of coal dust they had the added assignment to study present European practices for neutralizing the coal-dust explosion hazard. Information was obtained through discussions with the Research Directors, by visits to testing stations and observations of operating mines in various countries. This paper tells what the current practice in this field is in Europe, and how effectively coal dust explosions are controlled. The method is rock dust barriers. CONTROL OF COAL DUST DISSEMINATION Experience in Europe indicates that the control of dust production and dissemination by water or foam systems is not successful except during undercutting. Cybulski, Dawes, and DeBraaf - respectively Director, Mines Research Establishment "Barbara", Katowice, Poland; Principal Scientific Officer, Safety in Mines Research Establishment, Sheffield, England; and Chief, Central Mines Research Establishment, Hoensbroek, Treebeek, The Netherlands - believe that wetted dust becomes readily dispersible and abatement measures should be considered only as a temporary means for reducing the health hazard. In an effort to reduce the health hazard, calcium chloride is used on the floor of main haulageways in Dutch mines and water infusion is practiced in Germany in mines where the coal is relatively porous. With respect to wet coal dust, the Belgians, British, Dutch, French, and Russians reportedly have accepted the results of research from the Polish and American experimental mines on the effectiveness of water as an inert in arresting explosion propagation. The Polish use the two test methods proposed by the U.S. Bureau of Mines1 for evaluation of the adequacy of wetness of mine dust; they require that water be added to the wet dust to maintain a minimum of 50% moisture by weight if dependence is placed on water alone. GENERALIZED ROCK DUSTING The general attitude with regard to protection against coal dust explosions throughout Europe is that generalized rock dusting is a vital primary step to inhibit initial ignitions but definite emphasis is also placed upon the efficiency of rock dust barriers. Those exceptions to generalized rock dusting are Germany and Austria where some rock dusting is done but principal reliance is placed upon rock dust barriers. The rock dust used in Belgium, Holland, Russia, and Poland is coarser than that used in the U. S.; 50% of the dust is through a No. 200 sieve (75 microns). Recent research by the Polish indicates that the portion finer than 20 microns is ineffective in arresting explosion propagation, and that the rock

Jan 1, 1964

By Donald Barton

THE theory of gravitation is based on Newton's law that any two bodies exert a mutual attraction which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them; i. e., A = K MM/R2 (1) where K is a constant, M and m are the respective masses of the two bodies, and R the distance between them. In the earth's gravitational system, the earth is one of the bodies; the other may be any body within or without the earth. In theoretical discussions and calculations in regard to gravity, that other body usually is taken as a unit of mass: in the C. G. S. system, a body of one gram in mass. GRAVITY AND LEVEL SURFACES Gravity is defined in geophysics as the force of attraction exerted by the earth, towards itself, on a body of unit mass. The intensity of gravity is usually expressed in dynes of force or in centimeters of acceleration. In geophysical work in America, most commonly it is expressed in dynes (per gram) with the "per gram" understood and not directly expressed. In geophysical work in Europe, most commonly it is expressed in centimeters per second per second (cm./sec 2) and less commonly merely as centimeter-gram-second units (C. G. S.). At sea level, the intensity of gravity amounts very nearly to 980 dynes. The vertical is the direction along which the attraction of gravity is exerted at any point. In most cases, it is very nearly, but not quite, perpendicular to the earth's surface. The path that would be taken by a body falling freely through space toward the earth is vertical at each point and may be spoken of also as "the vertical," or as the line of the vertical, or as a line of force of gravity. At the earth's surface it commonly is very nearly, but not quite, a straight line.

Jan 1, 1928

By Donald Barton

THE theory of gravitation is based on Newton's law that any two bodies exert a mutual attraction which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them; i. e., A = K MM/R2 (1) where K is a constant, M and m are the respective masses of the two bodies, and R the distance between them. In the earth's gravitational system, the earth is one of the bodies; the other may be any body within or without the earth. In theoretical discussions and calculations in regard to gravity, that other body usually is taken as a unit of mass: in the C. G. S. system, a body of one gram in mass. GRAVITY AND LEVEL SURFACES Gravity is defined in geophysics as the force of attraction exerted by the earth, towards itself, on a body of unit mass. The intensity of gravity is usually expressed in dynes of force or in centimeters of acceleration. In geophysical work in America; most commonly it is expressed in dynes (per gram) with the "per gram" understood and not directly expressed. In geophysical work in Europe, most commonly it is expressed in centimeters per second per second (cm./sec.2) and less commonly merely as centimeter-gram-second units (C. G. S.). At sea level, the intensity of gravity amounts very nearly to 980 dynes. The vertical is the direction along which the attraction of gravity is exerted at any point. In most cases, it is very nearly, but not quite, perpendicular to the earth's surface. The path that would be taken by a body falling freely through space toward the earth is vertical at each point and may be spoken of also as "the vertical," or as the line of the vertical, or as a line of force of gravity. At the earth's surface it commonly is very nearly, but not quite, a straight line.

Jan 1, 1928

By F. J. Cuddeback

For low-head pumping of small quantities of water, the water jet, or hydraulic educter, has been used to advantage by Eagle-Picher Mining and Smelting Co. in the Tri-State district. Water-jet pumps are used for draining sumps and pockets up to 15 ft. in depth. They have been used very successfully when only moderate amounts of water are encountered in taking up bottom. A small, easily handled unit is desirable in this work, especially while opening and deepening a new stope. Small air pumps are convenient but can be used only on the day shift, when air is available. Obviously, a jet pump of smaller capacity but operating 24 hr. prevents lost time at the start of each shift. No tests have been made on their power efficiency, but admittedly it is low. However, for certain kinds of work this is offset by their handiness, low initial cost, low upkeep, and reliability. They will handle slime and sand without ill effect, and will continue to pump indefinitely on air. This foolproof 24-hr. performance has led to their continued use at some places even after electric pumps with better power efficiency could have been installed. The success of jet pumps depends largely upon a cheap source of high-pressure water. Owing to mine depths in the Tri-State district, pump pressures range from 100 to 150 Ib. per sq. in. In many mines it is common practice to handle the normal inflow water with triplex pumps ranging in size from 3 to 8 in. The pumps operate 24 hr. per day, and, in order to handle emergency conditions, are speeded slightly faster than necessary to pump the normal inflow. The sump level is governed by controlling the by-pass water with a butterfly valve and float. This method is somewhat wasteful of power, but permits the pumps to operate with a minimum of attention. Such an installation is visited once a day to check lubrication. Hence, if some of this water, normally by-passed to the main sump, were used to operate a jet pump, the power cost could be considered low regardless of efficiency. Figs. I and 2 show two water jets that have done satisfactory work. The one in Fig. 2, made up entirely of pipe fittings, may be of interest partially because of its novelty, but does better work than its appearance indicates. The pipe fittings for this jet as shown cost $2.20. Some improvement in its design may be made by cutting out the 135 by 1¼-in. reducer to a smoother taper as shown by dotted lines. A 3-in. suction pipe is sometimes used in order that the discharge may be as straight as possible. A 2-in. discharge line has been used frequently, but 3-in. pipe is used where several hundred feet of discharge is required.

Jan 1, 1946

By L. W. Bahney

MANY methods for the determination of gold or silver, or both, in cyanide solutions have been published, which with care in manipulation, and modification in some cases, will give results that are satisfactory. It is possible to classify or group these methods as follows: 1. Evaporating the solution in a porcelain or agate-ware dish containing litharge,1 or in a "boat" made of lead foil. 2. Forming a lead sponge containing the precious metals by means of zinc shavings,2 zinc dust,3 or a piece of aluminum.4 3. Decomposing the cyanide solution with an acid and precipitating the precious metals by the use of one or a combination of some of the following: Copper sulphate,5 sodium sulphite,6 hydrogen sulphide,7 cement copper.8 4. Precipitating the silver by zinc dust held in a Hooch crucible and determination with a standard solution of sulphocyanate.9 5. Electrolysis.10 6. Colorimetry.11

Jan 2, 1915

By Charles Wert

THE diffusion and precipitation of carbon and nitrogen in a iron have previously been investigated using the internal friction as a measuring tool.' Most of this work has been done on rather pure iron; no effect was observed which would indicate that either of these phenomena is affected by the rather small amounts of impurity found in these samples of iron. Fastz observed, however, that both the diffusion rate and the aging properties of nitrogen in iron were sensibly changed by the addition of Vz pet Mn. The diffusion rate at a given temperature is reduced and the nucleation of nitrides is apparently changed somewhat. He observed no such changes for carbon in this alloy. Later Dijkstra and Sladek" extended these observations on nitrogen to other alloys of iron. They found that metals other than manganese also influence the behavior of nitrogen in iron; chromium, molybdenum and especially vanadium affect the diffusion and precipitation of nitrogen even more than manganese does. Their results have been verified in all essential details by this author, who finds in addition that small additions of nickel have about the same effect on the diffusion of nitrogen as the same amount of manganese. The present work was undertaken to study the effect on carbon in iron of these alloying elements. The alloys used had two sources. The material used as a "standard" (designated Fe in this paper) in the measurements was some iron supplied by J. K. Stanley, of Westinghouse Electric Corp., who reported 0.01 pct 0, as the only major impurity. He also made up an alloy of 0.26 pct Ni and one of 0.9 pct Mo using this same iron as a base. They were supplied by him in 2 lb billets, which were sawed into rods and cold formed into 0.030 in. wires for measurement. The alloys of chromium, manganese, and vanadium were prepared by the metallurgy section of the Institute for the Study of Metals, University of Chicago, by adding these metals in turn to vacuum melts of National Research Corp. iron. The small castings prepared in this way were also cold formed into 0.030 in. wires. After these wires had been prepared they were decarburized for 30 min at 730°C in wet Hz. After this treatment, no trace of carbon (as measured by internal friction) could be found. All specimens were then carburized for about 15 min at 710°C and water quenched. By this treatment the internal friction at 40°C was raised to a Q-' ~ 0.015. The diffusion of carbon in these alloys was studied by observing the shape and position of the internal friction peak at 0.9 cycles per sec. These measurements were made using a torsional pendulum in a manner described earlier.' The data are plotted in Fig. 1. It is seen that there is no apparent difference in internal friction between the various alloys. This is in marked distinction to the broadening and shift-

Jan 1, 1953

ENGINEERS AVAILABLE (Under this heading will be published notes sent to the Secretary of the Institute by members or other persons introduced by members.) Member, technical graduate, aged 36. Experienced copper metallurgist and mining geologist. Familiar also, through 15 years' broad practical experience, with mining, cyanidation, concentration (including oil flotation), metallurgical accounting, and mine and plant management. Best references. No. 237. Member, graduate engineer with 10 years' experience in malleable, gray -Iron, and steel, as chemist., metallographist, and metallurgist. Researches and investigations by laboratory methods and under works conditions. No objection to some routine. No. 243. Member, technical graduate, broad experience in coal, oil, and clay. Will go anywhere as mining geologist after Sept. 1, 1915. No. 244. Member, technical graduate, aged 30, married, with over 10 years' experience as chemist, engineer on construction, superintendent and general superintendent of bituminous coal and coke plants. SpeaksSpanish. References. No. 245. Member, open for engagement as mine safety inspector or as superintendent of bituminous coal mine. No. 246. Member, graduate mining engineer, with five years' experience in coal mining as mining engineer, construction engineer, pit boss, and superintendent, open for engagement. Best references. No. 247.

Jan 9, 1915

By A. W. Hesse

Twelve years ago, some coal-mine operators, mining engineers, oil and gas operators, Bureau of Mines engineers, geologists and state mine inspectors met in Pittsburgh, Pa. to discuss and solve if possible, the problems in connection with the drilling of oil and gas wells through or near coal mines and through the future coal reserves. Regulations were drafted and presented by O. P. Hood and A. G. Heggem of the Bureau of Mines.' . There was considerable discussion of the various articles, practically all of which appear in Bulletin 65, but the interest aroused at that meeting was short lived. Practically none of the important coal-producing states gave the matter the consideration it should have received. Notwithstanding the marked progress in safety work, coal mines still have an unenviable reputation for mine explosions. Our mining laws have become stricter and the enforcement, especially in Pennsylvania, more rigid, but what good will come from a rigid enforcement of the mining laws if some source of danger exists all around the mines, over which the operators have no control ? It is hardly necessary to recite all the cases of natural-gas explosions published in Bulletin 65, but with some of them I am especially familiar. In 1912, while visiting the Miners' Hospital, at Fairmont, W. Va., my attention was called to a patient swathed in in bandages so that no part of his face and hands were visible. He had not been told that his two sons, mere boys, had died of the burns they had received in the same accident—explosion due to natural gas leaking into a country mine at Peora, Harrison Co., W. Va.

Jan 1, 1925

By H. M. Otte, A. L. Esquivel

A new leasl-squares method is Presented for determining lattice parameters of hexagonal or tetragonul structures. The method is adapted for use on electronic computers and involves a reiterative procedure. The correction factor employed raries linearly with the lattice parameter, a (determined from the Brag, angle). In contrast, Cohen's method and recent modifications of it use a correction factor that varies incersely as the squure of the lattice paramneter, a. While the recent modifications attempt to improve the precision of the extrapolated lattice parameter, a, (or-cu). by stressing the importance of the weighting factor. the present approach emphasizes the need for choosing the correct extrapolation function. A comparison between the present method (the Linear method) and Cohen's method indicates that the Linear method may be more appropriale in certain cases. through a priori no critertion appears to he available for making a chorce between the methods. The size of hexagonal and tetragonal crystal lattices is determined by two parameters, a, and c,. Although in principle the two lattice parameters can be determined independently from reflections for which h - k = 0 and 1 = 0, respectively, in practice this may be inconvenient (because of the angular positions at which these reflections may occur) or not easily possible (because of low intensity). Furthermore, if a high precision or accuracy is required, the limited number of reflections of this type available, particularly in the high-angle region, is not sufficient for the necessary corrections (mainly due to absorption) to be determined with accuracy. Several methods1-7,11-13 have been proposed employing all reflections, to obtain the optimum values, a. and co, either by a trial and error procedure or a least-squares fit. Of the latter method, cohen's5 is the best known one since it provides explicit expressions for the optimum a. and c,. However, Cohen's method is only strictly valid if an extrapolation function is used that varies linearly with l/a2 or lie2 (see Section 3), a requirement that does not appear to be generally appreciated. On the other hand, all the better known and more widely used A recent trial and error method was proposed by Massalski and King8,7 who computed extensive auxiliary tables of axial ratios vs the functions A = [(4/3)(h2 + hk +k2) + l2+(a/c)2] and C = A(c/a)2 used in computing a and c values from the observed Bragg angles. These values of a and c were then plotted against a function which permitted linear extrapolation. As a criteria; for the "optimum" values, Massalski and King rely upon a visual fitting of the line through points representing reflections of low 1-index points to compute the extrapolated value of ao and high 1-index reflections to obtain CO. The successive computations and graphical plotting required to reach the "optimum" value are quite lengthy and tedious even on a desk calculator and no quantitative assurance is obtained of having in fact selected the optimum value.* If the method of Massalski and King is used on an electronic computer, then their published tables become redundant and a least-squares fit becomes a natural selection for the choice of optimum values. Such an approach will be called the Linear method. For work now in progress on the effect of certain physical variables on the lattice parameters of hexagonal crystals, it has become essential to determine the confidence limits of small changes in the lattice parameters. Since extrapolation functions that varied linearly with a and c actually also appeared to vary linearly with l/a2 or l/c2 when tested against published as well as our data, a comparison of Cohen's method and the Linear method was considered desirable (Sections 3 and 4). For the latter method an electronic computer was required since a reiterative procedure to obtain the optimum ao and co values had to be employed. The purpose of this paper is to describe the principles of the Linear method, illustrate its application, and compare it with Cohen's method. 1) THE LINEAR METHOD The standard practice in obtaining the lattice parameters in the Debye-Scherrer method is to

Jan 1, 1965

CYRIL STANLEY SMITH, Chairman CARL E. SWARTZ, Past-Chairman ARTHUR PHILLIPS, Vice-Chairman E. E. SCHUMACHER, Vice-Chairman H. A. MALONEY, Treasurer FRANK. T. SISCO, Secretary 9 West 39th Street, New York, N. 1. Executive Committee 1944 1945 WILLIAM C. ELLIS C. S. BARRETT ALAN MORRIS T. A. WRIGHT KENT R. VAN HORN L. L. WYMAN

Jan 1, 1943