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By R. Taggart, D. H. Polonis, W. C. Gallaugher

In the Ti-Cu system, the a' phase can be produced over a wide range of alloy composition witJwut the retention of measurable amounts of the ß or ? phases. This paper reports on the decomposition of this hexagonal martensite phase front the standpoint of solute corzcentratiorz, tempering temperature, and coherency strain condition. The mechanism of precipitation during tempering comprises localized precipitation which is followed by discontinuous precipitation if sufficient coherency strains are present. The localized precipitation process in hypoeutectoid alloys is described by the generalized Johnson-hiehl equation and an activation energy of 46,000 cal per mole. In hypereutectoid alloys the corresponcEing activation energy is 51,000 cal per mole. The rate-controlling process has been proposed as the difision of copper along a' platelet interfnces. SEVERAL investigations have been reported concerning the kinetics of decomposition of the mar-tensitic a' phase in titanium binary alloys.' In the Ti-Mo system,' two modes of a' decomposition have been observed in the presence of /3 phase; one of these involves the precipitation of fine a from a', and the other involves diffusion across the a'-ß interface. In studies of the Ti-Cr system, Rostoker2 did not detect the formation of TiCr2 during tempering. In Ti-Ni alloys,3 the intermediate phase Ti2Ni has been found to precipitate directly from a' along the interfaces between plates. With the exception of the study of Ti-Ni alloys the previous investigations of tempering phenomena in substitutional martensites are mainly qualitative and do not present a detailed description of the precipitation processes. The following limitations restrict the correlation of the microstruc-tural processes and reaction kinetics during tempering in most binary-alloy systems. 1) A mixture of at least two phases characterizes the constitution of quenched alloys. 2) Difficulties have been encountered in obtaining uniform structures throughout quenched samples. 3) The reaction products, and in particular their morphology. have not been clearly resolved. 4) The martensitic a' phase forms over only a limited composition range for most titanium-base binary alloys. Gomez and polonis4 showed that the Ti-Cu system provides an excellent basis for investigating the tempering of a' over a range of composition without the complication of retained P or the transition w phase. In the present work the effects of solute concentration, tempering temperature, and coherency strain conditions are considered with reference to the over-all precipitation process in quenched alloys of the Ti-Cu system. Both microstructural observations and kinetic data are correlated to define the rate-controlling processes which govern the observed localized and discontinuous precipitation reactions. An earlier paper5 was devoted to a discussion of the modes of heterogeneous nucleation of Ti2Cu from the martensitic a' structure. The present paper will therefore emphasize the progress of the tempering reaction beyond the initial stages. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS The Ti-Cu alloys for this study were prepared by conventional arc-melting procedures. Chemical analysis revealed that the alloy buttons contained approximately 0.02 wt pct 0, 0.04 wt pct N, and within 0.1 wt pct of the intended copper concentration. The progress of the tempering reaction was followed by means of electrical-resistance measurements utilizing a Kelvin double bridge, microhard-ness readings with a 400-g load, and X-ray dif-fractometry patterns to reveal line-broadening effects. Metallographic specimens examined at magnifications greater than X1000 were shadowed with germanium to reveal fine structural details. Direct carbon replicas were prepared for the electron-microscopy studies. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Property Changes. The changes of microhardness that accompany the precipitation of Ti2Cu from a' are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. As the solute concentration increases the peak hardness, for a given tempering temperature, increases. In alloys of given composition the time to reach the peak hardness agreed with the time to attain maximum X-ray diffraction peak breadth, as shown in Fig. 3. The maximum hardness and the maximum line breadth increased with lower tempering temperatures, and the time to reach the maximum also increased. The a' peaks broadened during the initial stages of tem-

Jan 1, 1965

By Charles H. Fulton

IT is assumed that the word "college" for the present purpose signifies technical school or technical department of a college or university. About ten or fifteen years ago, and more recently in some instances the contact between the technical school and the industry, as represented by the operating companies, was very limited. The school made no effort to place its graduates in the industry and the graduate's first position was obtained by his own or his friends' efforts; the friend often was a professor. The industries, or the operating companies, seemingly had little interest in the training of the technical graduates they employed or in seeking to discover their personal characteristics and fitness for the work. In the public mind there was little relation between technical training and industry. Such training was in the field of education; industry was in the field of business; and the interrelationship was not a matter of common knowledge or concern.

Jan 1, 1929

By F. Lowell Lawrance

JOHN SMITH, citizen of the U.S.A., has become so accustomed to reading that Congress has appropriated billions of dollars to pay war costs. that he no longer is impressed by relatively small figures, such as several hundred thousand or a few million, in connection with Government departments.

Jan 1, 1944

The following is an incomplete list of members and guests who called at Institute headquarters during the period May 10, 1919, to June 10, 1919. Victor C. Alderson, Golden, Colo. E. Fleming L'Engle, Joplin, Mo. H. Foster Bain, Washington, D. C. W. D. Mainwaring, Philadelphia, Pa. J. J. Beeson, Master Engr. Sr. Gr. W. G. Matteson, Fort Worth, Tex. Gunnar Bergstrom, Stockholm, Sweden. C. E. MacDonald, Toronto, Can. Corry T. Brown, Socorro, N. Met. Francis Nicholson, Charlotte, Va. Geo. W. Brymer, Scranton, Pa. Richard A. Parker, Denver, Colo. W. Burns, Santa Fe, N. Mex. S. B. Patteson, Jr., Allentown, Pa. H. C. Carlisle, The Pas, Manitoba, Can. G. W. Ponton, Ottawa, Canada. J. Carson Adkerson, Va. W. H. Reber, Ensign, Dallas, Tex. C. A. Cheney, Madison, Wis. T. C. Roberts, New York City. J. M. Clark, Toronto, Canada W. A. Rukeyser, Ensign, N. F. Corps. John J. Doyle, St. Louis, Mo. W. H. Staver, New York City. H. S. Emlaw, Grand Haven, Mich. D. B. Sterrett, Washington, D. C. E. Francis, Birmingham, Ala. T. V. Smirnoff, Russia. Rudolf Gahl, Denver, Colo. E. C. Templeton, New York City. Emit Gthmann, Baltimore, Md. H. A. Toblemann, Ajo, Ariz. A. B. Hardie, Philadelphia, Pa. Priestley Toulmin, Birmingham, Ala. Clarence M. Haight, Franklin, N. J. M. R. Walker, Baltimore, Md. N. V. Hansell, New York City. H. A. Wheeler, St. Louis, Mo. C. A. Heberlein, Nacosari, Mexico. D. B. Whitaker, Santiago, Cuba. Pierre Hines, Milwaukee, Wis. A. W. G. Wilson, Ottawa, Can. J. S. Hollings, Brymoba, Wales. Oba Wiser, Hanover, N. Mex C. Vey Holman, Maine. Harry J. Wolf, Denver, Colo. H. H. Howry, Denver, Colo. F. H. Wood, Mt. Vernon, N. Y. W. Spencer Hutchinson, Boston, Mass. J. P. Wood, New York, N. Y. W. B. Kunhardt, Reading, Pa. Lawrence Addicks sailed on May 17 for London; lie expects to be absent from this country for several months. Roy H. Allen has accepted a position in the research engineering department of the National Aniline & Chemical Co., Buffalo, N. Y. H. Foster Bain has gone to Shanghai, China, where he expects to remain for some time. Percy J. Bandy has accepted a position with the Cia. Minera del Mirasol S. A., at Cusihuiriachic, Chihuahua, Mexico. J. H. Batcheller is now with the North Midas Copper Co., St. Helena, Alaska.

Jan 7, 1919

By V. S. Rood

Typical System of Workings THE general system of workings at the Utah-Apex is similar to that found in many of the western metalliferous mines. There is a vertical three-compartment shaft extending to the surface, from which the various levels have been driven to the orebodies. The 1000-ft. (305-m.) level, about ¾ mile long, was driven as a haulage and drain adit. Geology The formation is a flat north-dipping series of alternating limestone and quartzite beds. Extensive north-south faulting and-fissuring have taken place, resulting in the formation of large replacement orebodies in the crushed zones in the limestone. The orebodies are irregular in shape and size, but follow closely the trend of the mineralizing fissures. The ore consists of galena, pyrite, sphalerite and small values in silver and gold. Large masses of non-commercial pyrite are frequently found in or adjacent' to the orebodies, and more or less pyrite is found for some distance in the walls of the orebodies. Lenticular bodies of a black pyritic shale also occur in the zones where extensive faulting has taken place.

Jan 6, 1918

EUGENE McAULIFFE, * St. Louis, Mo.-The method employed by the Engineer's Committee in arriving at a proper selling price for coal and coke represents hard painstaking effort based on a thoroughly scientific foundation; and the United States Fuel Administration can well point with pride to the work of this committee. The results so obtained placed

Jan 12, 1918

By W. R. Ingalls

THE MAJOR use of spelter has always been for the coating of iron and steel products, the process of coating being known as "galvanizing" and the products themselves as "galvanized," except for a couple of years during the war, when the consumption for brass making became superior, in the United States at least, owing to military demands. Since 1919, however, the consumption of spelter for galvanizing has regained the premier position, but not with such a long lead over brass making as previous to the war. The last development is ascribable to two main reasons, viz., an increased demand for brass in new industries, especially automobile manufacturing; and a diminished use of spelter per unit of iron and steel galvanized. MAJOR IMPORTANCE OF SUBJECT The last mentioned matter has already been the subject of some discussion and of some literature. The galvanizers have been charged with deliberately thinning their zinc coatings, with the consequence of producing inferior goods and thereby jeopardizing the whole galvanizing business. Zinc producers have been concerned about this, out of consideration of both the less use of zinc per unit of iron and steel and the fear that, the number of units produced may be curtailed. It has been argued, among other things, that the present policy of American galvanizers would impair their ability to compete in foreign markets with British galvanizers, who have been represented as making a superior product.

Jan 7, 1923

By Jean-Jacques Prompsy, J. S. Rinehart

Some time ago a study was initiated at the Colorado School of Mines in an effort to arrive at a better understanding of the stress fields developed within drill bits under dynamic loading and the influence that these stress fields could have on the failure of the bits. Particular emphasis has been given to the influence that bit shape has on the establishment of highly localized, potentially destructive stress inhomogeneities within the bit. The study has been divided into three phases involving three velocity regimes: impacts at very low velocities, 0 to 20 ft/sec, a velocity range in which dynamic effects are just beginning to be found; impacts at velocities ranging from 20 to several hundred ft/sec, a range commonly encountered in practical drilling operations; and impulsive loading through the detonation of explosives, a region in which the dynamic effects are greatly exaggerated and made more identifiable. The ultimate objective is to provide basic data which will enable the mitigation through judicious design of the frequency and severity of these transient concentrations of intense stress, thereby prolonging and increasing drill efficiency. This paper presents results of the third phase of this study — the development of a better understanding of the dynamics and mechanics of failures caused by transient stress-wave interactions. The impulsive loading or transient waves in these experiments were generated by detonating small explosive charges placed on the ends of Plexiglas cylindrical rods terminating in truncated cones. Under such intense loading, dynamic effects are greatly exaggerated and, hence, made more identifiable. The explosion generates a high-intensity transient stress disturbance which moves through the rod, reflects from surfaces which lie in its path, and establishes momentarily narrow regions of high concentrations of stress where failure of fracture may occur. The peregrinations of these waves, their interactions and their effects have already been described in the literature (see, for example, Refs. 1 and 2). The locations and extent of the regions quite apparently are strongly dependent on specimen shape, making it possible through judicious shaping of specimens to relocate the highly stressed regions, minimize their extent, or eliminate them entirely. These experiments were designed, first, to identify more clearly the vulnerable regions in geometries relevant to drill-bit design and, then, to modify these regions in a predictable way by changing specimen shape. Through this latter process, it is anticipated that better bit design might evolve. The specimens used in the experiments were cylindrical rods, 1 1/2 and 1 1/8 in. in diameter, ended by a truncated cone, with the cone angles ranging from 45° to 130°. Upper cone face diameters were 1/2, 3/4, or 1 in. A small plastic-covered electric blasting cap detonated on the axis of the specimen produced the spherical shock wave. The detonators used were Olin Mathieson No. 6, which induced into the rod a transient saw-toothed stress disturbance of about 3-microseconds duration, corresponding to a wave length of 0.3 in. in the Plexiglas. Five distinct systems of fracture were observed: (1) along the axis of the rod, a lower system of fractures, the cracks focusing around one point for specimens having cone angles of 80° and 90° and, as the cone angle was increased, spreading downward; (2) just above these fractures, an upper system of fractures composed of horizontal cracks observable in some specimens but not of any appreciable extent; (3) a third system of axial cracks still above the latter, observable in the small cone-angle specimens; (4) in the upper part of the specimen, a system of radial fractures extending from the blasting point; and (5) circular spalling due to reflection of the wave on the boundary of the cylinder. Only the first three systems, the axial fractures, are examined here. LOWER TENSILE FRACTURE SYSTEM The first, lower system of tensile fractures, shown in the photograph of Fig. 1, was observed in almost all of the specimens. It was due to the reflected tensile wave coming in from the boundary of the cylinder as shown in Fig. 2. The reflected wave was cylindrically convergent and focused

By W. F. Hower, W. Brown

Large-scale sand consolidation tests were conducted in an effort to determine the reasons for the successes and failures of this method of sand control. Several different consolidating materials were used in treating both clean and bentonitic sands that were packed in a chamber having a capacity of 3.3 cu ft. The results were essentially the same for all of the different consolidating materials, The data show that low-viscosity consolidating materials pumped at a relatively slow rate gave the best results. Where the formation has produced sand, the treating fluids can compress the formation, thus permitting the channeling of fluids to another horizon. Pressure-packing these zones before attempting to consolidate is recommended. Sands containing more than 4 per cent of water-swelling clays are not good candidates for consolidation. It is indicated that loose sand, particularly when it is bentonitic, can be fractured during the placement of the treating fluids. INTRODUCTION Sand production in oil and gas wells has plagued the industry for many years, and numerous cures for this problem have been suggested. Most methods have been successful to a certain degree, but the great variety of well conditions that exist in the different areas has magni- fied the problem and limited the successful use of the various systems. Four review papers1-4 present a wealth of information concerning the degrees of success that have been obtained by the different sand-control methods. The bridging of sand grains by the use of gravel packs and screens has been quite successful. However, these methods do not leave the casing clear for all types of multiple completions, and the cure does not last for the production life of the well in some instance:;. The control of loose sands by sand consolidation with resins has never been as successful as desired. It has always been hoped that such a treatment would eliminate all sand problems for the life of the well, but. initial applications, starting in the middle 1940's, were only moderately successful. Lott, et a1,3 reported a success ratio of approximately 50 per cent and made the following conclusions. The highest percentage of successes were obtained where: a. Consolidation of a zone was made at the time of initial completion or prior to the production of sand. b. The interval treated was less than 12 ft in length. c. Between 30 and 50 gill plastic/ft of producing interval was displaced through the perforations. REASONS FOR SAND CONSOLIDATION FAILURES Our own experiences in the field of sand consolidation point toward the following conditions as the major reasons for the failure of sand consolidation attempts. 1. Mud-plugged perforations and mud invasion of the formation. 2. Sand in the casing covering all or part of the perforations. This sand could be either formation sand or one of the coarser sands used as propping agents in hydraulic fracturing. 3. Holes in the casing. 4. Channels behind the casing. 5. Attempting to treat too long a perforated section. 6. Too high a percentage of water-swelling clays in the formation. 7. Formations that have produced sand. Recent attempts were made to treat perforated sections ranging from 10 to 30 ft, in wells that have produced sand, by using a straddle packer that was raised and lowered through the perforations as the consolidating material was being pumped. In most instances, the pressure required to pump fluid into the formation varied considerably as the tool was raised and lowered. This suggested the possibility that significant differences in permeability were present or that only part of the formation had produced sand. There were times when a sudden break in pressure indicated that a fracture was being formed. Research conducted several years ago concerning the problem of the control of water in air and gas drilling indicated that shale sections could be fractured quite easily. In addition, it was determined that it was easier to pump fluids into shale bodies by fracturing the shale itself, or the interface between the shale and sand, than to pump into a fluid-saturated formation. Formations that produce sand are usually adjacent to shale bodies and frequently have shale streaks of various thicknesses inter-bedded in the sand. Therefore, where shale is exposed to fluid pressure it

The Library of the above-named Societies is open from 9, A.M. to 10 P.M. on all week-days, except holidays, from September 1 to June 30, and from 9 A.M. to 6 P.M. during July and August. The Library contains about 55,000 volumes, including sets of technical periodicals and the publications of scientific and technical societies. Members of the Institute, with few exceptions, are forced to spend a portion of their time in localities isolated from sources of information. To these the Library can render valuable service through correspondence; letters requesting information will receive special, attention. The Library is prepared to furnish references and copies of articles on mining and metallurgical subjects; to determine the existence of mining-maps, and to furnish general information as to the geology and mineral resources of all countries. All communications should be made as definite as possible so that, the information received may be what is desired and not include collateral matter which may not be of interest. The time spent in searching for such collateral matter will be saved, and the information will be sent more promptly and in more usable shape. The members of the Institute can be of service to the Library y forwarding copies of mining reports, maps privately issued, and similar material, which will be classified; indexed, and made availableto other members. Suggestions for additions to the Library, either y purchase or personal solicitation as gifts, will be welcomed. It is hoped that members while in the city will use the Library freely, and assurance is given that most careful service will be rendered to them.

Jan 8, 1914

By W. E. Rice

THE ceramic industry has to do with forming or molding articles of clay, and imparting to them their characteristic properties of permanence, strength and color by subjecting them to heat treatment in kilns. This heat treatment is commonly known as "firing" or "burning." The art of firing clay ware antedates the industrial use of coal; hence wood was the fuel first used, and the earliest kilns were built to burn wood. The majority of the clay ware produced today is fired in periodic kilns that are essentially enlarged structures similar to the earliest enclosed kilns; a kiln consists of a large chamber 16 to 32 ft. dia. (or rectangular) in which the ware is charged and fired either in direct contact with flame or hot gases from the fuel, or in saggers which shield the ware from direct contact with the gases. The fuel is burned in a number of small furnaces built in the thick .wall that encloses the chamber; these furnaces are from 16 to 36 in. wide and from 3 to 5 ft. long; some of them have horizontal or sloping grates, but many have no, grates; the last are called "dead-bottom" furnaces. The temperature necessary to mature the charge in the kiln varies for different clays; for some it is as low as 1800°, and for others as high as 2700° F. Wood was an ideal fuel for the low temperatures that were used in early kilns; it burns freely and produces along, clean flame, which promotes uniform distribution of the heat in the kiln; it does not coke and so restrict the passage of air through the fuel bed; the ash does not melt in the fuel bed to form clinker; and the ash that is carried into the chamber and deposited on the charge does not contain iron and sulfur to discolor the clay. The extent of the ceramic industry now precludes the general use of wood in kilns, so that today this industry is one of the large users -of bituminous coal, burning more than eight million tons annually in kilns. Manufacturing plants usually are at or near the source of clay, with deposits of coal suitable for kilns occurring near the clay. The cost of coal is the largest single item of expense in the manufacture of clay ware, and, because all coals are not equally suitable for the process, the careful selection of coal is important. In this selection the desidera-

Jan 1, 1932

By J. C. Platt

1 desire to call the attention of the Institute to what is believed to be a new improvement in 'the construction of journal-bearings, having for its object the reduction of original cost as well as cost of renewals. In an ordinary railroad car we find the space between the top of the axle and the top of the box is filled with a "brass," weighing from seven to ten pounds. Of this amount of metal a comparatively small portion is subjected to the wear which it is intended to meet. The balance is, practically, a filling material, which from habit has long been constructed of the same metal. The Defreest bearing is made of three parts, namely, a malleableiron back, a bronze bearing-piece, and between them a filling-piece of sheet lead. The bronze takes the wear of the axle, the iron fills up the space and acts as a backing to the bronze, and the lead, being soft, adapts itself to the inequalities in the surfaces of the iron and bronze castings, thus insuring a uniform bearing on all points, and making it unnecessary to bore out the iron or turn off the bronze to bring them to a perfect contact at all points. These three park are joined together by two soft brass rivets, with counter-sunk heads, to prevent separation in handling. A groove is cast in the iron, and a corresponding rib on the bronze, to prevent the latter from turning with the axle when in place. In renewals it is ordinarily necessary simply to drive out the rivets and renew the bronze and lead. The iron part is not subjected to much wear and should last for years. It is evident that the first cost of these journals, and also the cost of renewals, must be much less than the old form. This difference amounts, at the present price of materials, to $9.60 for an eightwheel car, in first cost, and $4.72 for renewals. These bearings have been in use, and found to do what is claimed for them.

Jan 1, 1880

By AIME AIME

EVERETTE LEE DEGOLYER, past President of the Institute and Anthony F. Lucas Medalist, was presented with the John Fritz Medal at a dinner at the Wal-dorf-Astoria Hotel in New York, Jan. 14. Dr. DeGolyer is the third representative of the Institute in recent years to receive the John Fritz Medal which is awarded jointly by the four Founder Engineering Societies through a board composed of sixteen past presidents. In 1938 Paul D. Merica was given the award "for important contributions to the development of alloys for industrial uses" and in 1933 the distinction was given to D. C. Jackling "for notable industrial achievement in initiating mass production of copper from low-grade ores through application of engineering principles."

Jan 1, 1942

By J. T. Norton, Pekka Rautala

The phases and equilibria in the W-Co-C system have been studied by X-ray diffraction methods, metallographic technique, and thermal analysis. In addition to the 7 phase, two double carbides, called 8 and have been revealed. The compositions correspond to CO3 W6C2 and Co3-W10C4. The reactions leading to these phases have been explained and tentative diagrams of stable and metastable equilibria proposed. The basic reactions in sintering cobalt cemented tungsten carbides are discussed. THE W-Co-C system is of fundamental importance in practical carbide manufacturing as well as for the understanding of the sintering mechanism. Surprisingly little is known about this system, for the probable reason that all the important alloys are of two-phase structure and that the diagram Co-WC has been treated as a quasi-binary. This obviously is incorrect, because WC decomposes before melting. One ternary phase, 7, of composition Co3W3C has long been known. It was first studied by Adelskold, Sundelin, and Westgren,1 although the isomorphous iron-tungsten carbide was known earlier. There have been in the literature several reports of two 7 phases.' " Also the 7 phase has been considered unstable by Takeda4 and Westgren.1 The Co-WC diagram has been studied by Wyman and Kelley5 and a quasi-binary diagram has been published by Sandford and Trent.2 Takeda has published a tentative Co-W-C diagram, considering both metastable and stable equilibria. However, the lines of two-fold saturation are shown only partially and it seems impossible to complete the diagram without violating the phase theory. Therefore it seemed desirable to examine the system in more detail. Experimental Procedure The alloys used in the present investigation were made of powders of tungsten, tungsten monocarbide, cobalt, and carbon and were of the grade used in manufacture of commercial cemented carbides. The powders were ground and mixed in small stainless steel ball mills, using balls of the same material. Benzene was used as a dispersing agent. The mixing period was 1 hr, since this was shown to give suffi- ciently good mixing of the powders without too great a contamination from the mill. After ball milling, the specimens were pressed in cylindrical or rectangular dies. No paraffin or other lubricant was used and the small compacts had sufficient green strength to be handled without difficulty. Several sintering furnaces were employed. The most satisfactory arrangement was a vacuum furnace based on the Arsem principle which employed a graphite helix as the resistance heating element. Specimens were placed on graphite stands and there was generally a slight carburization or decarburiza-tion of the specimen surface, depending on the carbon content of the alloy. The evaporation of the cobalt at a sintering temperature of 1400°C was not significant, but became severe at 1500°C and higher. The sintering time was 1 hr at 2000°C and 2 to 4 hr at lower temperatures. It was not possible to quench the specimens, but the cooling rates were rather fast, greater than 300°C in the first minute. In the system under investigation, the reactions are sluggish, and it is believed that the high temperature structures are satisfactorily retained. The principal method of investigating the sintered specimens was X-ray diffraction by the Norelco recording spectrometer. Approximate determinations of the phase boundaries were made by the disappearing phase method. Ternary Phases To study the phase formation in W-Co-C system, a series of specimens was sintered at 1400°C. In this experiment two ternary phases, called here ? and k were formed in addition to the well-known 7 phase. The 7 phase, which has been completely described by Westgren: showed a range of homogeneity from 7 to 20 pct C and from 38 to 48 pct Co. At 1400°C the 7 phase was found to be in equilibrium with monotungsten carbide, 8, tungsten, 8, #?, and liquid. The boundaries toward #? and liquid were difficult to determine and appeared to be very temperature sensitive. The other boundaries are believed to be well fixed. The homogeneity range of 7, as measured in this work, is considerably smaller than the one

Jan 1, 1953

Albin, B. R Billings, Mont. Amster, Nathan L 25 Broad St., New York, N. Y. Bache, Jules S 42 Broadway, New York, N. Y. Barrett, C. P6338 Harper Ave., Chicago, Ill. Baum, Frank G Hobart Bldg., San Francisco, Cal. Bayless, Hon. William S Russ Bldg., San Francisco, Cal. Bean, Louis H., V.P., Dwight P. Robinson & Co., Inc 125 E. 46th St., New York, N. Y. Beatty, Ross J 1106 First National Bank Bldg., Chicago, Ill. Benwell, Oswald F 205 Colorado National Bank, Denver, Colo. Beymer, Albert S., V.P., Keystone National Bank Pittsburgh, Pa. Bingham, Charles W 1542 Hanna Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio. Blumenthal, Hugo 44 Pine St., New York, N. Y. Boettcher, Charles Ideal Cement Bldg., Denver, Colo. Bowlus, Thomas H Iola, Kans. Bragg, E. B Carmel, Cal.

Jan 1, 1929

By Paul Averitt

require both time and money. Any attempt to secure a quick answer will yield a figure that very likely cannot be substantiated, and certainly will not yield information in the detailed form now desired. It will be about 10 years before a completely new estimate can be prepared for the coal reserves of the United States at our present rate of progress, though of course, much information will be available in the interim. We would like to present such information as we obtain in the form most acceptable to the industry, and to that end we are working closely with coal resource committees of the AIME, the National Bituminous Coal Advisory Council, and the Bureau of Mines. DISCUSSION G. H. Cady*—Mr. Averitt's description of the nature of the coal resources investigations of the United States Geological Survey and the progress of this work is very timely in view of the general interest in the subject of coal resources. The Federal Survey is obviously taking the "long view" with respect to the appraisal of the coal resources as part of the preparation of the general geological map of the country and the attendant determination of the quantity of all mineral and fuel resources. It is apparently for regional surveys of the conventional type that the detailed procedures employed by the Federal Survey are applicable. Even if so it is somewhat unexpected to find the same criteria for evaluation will be applied to the country as a whole. The work on coal resources appraisal has been proceeding at various rates in a number of coal producing states for various periods. Undoubtedly since there has been no common practice in the method of appraisal the states each have worked independently and independently of the Federal Survey, and each has adopted certain practices to meet local conditions. I do not know how much consideration has been given by the U. S. Geological Survey to these practices. It seems probable that such consideration might result in important modifications of the standards which apparently have been set up by the Federal group in line with local requirements. It is the practice in some state surveys to present the facts in regard to the occurrence and distribution of coal beds and their variations in thickness down to thicknesses of 1 to 1 1/2 ft in relatively narrow stages up to maximum thickness. It is then possible for any one using such figures to compile quantitative estimates of workable coal at various minimum thickness limits. This is a desirable objective where surveys are detailed and information correspondingIy good. However, vast quantities of coal lie in beds that are relatively thin about which little information is available and the quantity of such coal might affect the final appraisal to the extent of several thousand million, depending upon the minimum limitation observed. Thus in the case of Illinois a difference of 1 ft in average thickness of coal in the coal field would make a difference of approximately 35 billion tons in the estimated quantity present. One is dealing with a very large area and small differences in thicknesses are very irnportant in the overall picture. The estimate of 10 years to accomplish the sort of detailed appraisal outlined by Mr. Averitt is viewed somewhat skeptically and certainly would require many more trained geologists than seem to be available. The requisite detailed mapping and study are very time consuming not only because of the geological field work required, which is difficult in certain seasons, but also in order to assemble data from company and personal files, and to study drill records and cores, and to sample and analyze the coal. Unless the staff of geologists could be increased in the order of several hundred per cent the prospects are that the appraisal of the type suggested will require many decades not just one. The permanent value of such appraisal, however, is not questioned and it should be expedited as rapidly as means allow. Satisfactory appraisal is not easily achieved and will vary from time to time. The main function of a geological survey is to collect and present the facts that will make possible appraisal in terms of existing conditions by individuals, particularly engineers, qualified by training and expcrience for making such estimates. Thickness and character of the coal bed, nature of the overlying and underlying strata, position, thickness, and character of "partings," relationship to other coal beds, and a variety of other factors must be assembled by the geologist in order to present a complete picture of the geological setting. The economic and engineering factors are in general outside the field of geological experience. The geologist should see to it that the pertinent geological facts are available; much more information than simply thickness and depth of the coal beds is essential to meet all the requirements of appraisal in the future as well as at present. With respect to the present demand by engineers and coal mine operators and others for a rapid re-appraisal of the available coal resources, in the light of existing practices and those in immediate prospect, the Federal procedure of systematic mapping and appraisal is scarcely in line. It will be necessary for those particularly interested in having such an estimate made to establish standards with respect to the various factors involved so that the scope of the geological work can be definitely restricted for the various coal fields. There is little use in setting up general standards since no such standards will be applicable to all fields. Thus it is folly to establish a standard minimum thickness to be generally applicable which is one-half to one-third the minimum minable thickness in some fields. The greatest difficulty in appraisal of the presently actually workable coal bed lies in the variation in the importance placed on roof, floor, structural conditions, bedded impurities. sulphur content and other factors that affect judgment relative to the value of a coal bed. It is doubtful whether any appraisal will have universal approval in view of the variable factors involved. For this reason if none other, the facts should be carefully and painstakingly assembled after the manner of a systematic geological survey such as that advocated by Mr. Averitt. Only upon the basis of sucb information can reliable estimates be made in line with selected conditions. Paul AveRitt (author's repty)— In this paper I discussed, but did not define as such, two major phases of our activities on coal, which are closely related, and which normally we in the U. S. Geological Survey see as an integrated whole. It is understandable, therefore, that Dr. Cady should assume that my remarks applied only to the current work on coal reserves with which I am directly concerned. In view of Dr. Cady's discussion, however, I think a brief summary of the two phases of U. S. Geological Survey activities on coal will be appropriate. The long-term function of the U. S. Geological Survey on coal investigations is to make detailed geologic studies, involving the preparation of detailed geologic maps showing the outcrops and correlations of coal beds, direction and dip of coal-bearing rocks, nature and thickness of overburden, location of faults and fold axes, and similar features. Such studies also yield many measured sections of coal and associated strata, which show variations in the thickness of the beds, and the intervals between coal beds. Taken as a whole, detailed geologic studies provide much useful information for mine operators and engineers. As Dr. Cady points out, this type of geologic work is arduous and time consuming, but it provides the basic data that are necessary both in the development of our coal fields, and also in the preparation of coal-reserve estimates, which are discussed in the next paragraph. The U. S.

Jan 1, 1950

By CHARLES W. BENTON

THE following paragraphs comprise such information as the Secretary has been able to obtain concerning the members and associates whose deaths have been reported. Further particulars or corrections of errors, and biographical data concerning deceased members or associates not already noticed in this way, are solicited. Charles IV. Benton was born at Kezar Falls, Maine, Nov. 12, 1843. We have no accurate knowledge concerning the early part of his career. In 1871 he engaged with the N. Y. Honduras Rosario Mining Co., at San Juancinto, Honduras, C. A., and later was employed at the Monserrat mine at Yuscaran, and at Santa Lucia, Honduras, with the Tenero Mining Milling Co. of Pennsylvania. In 1897 he became a member of the Institute. At the time he was stricken with his last sickness he was employed at the Paymaster mine at Tucson, Ariz. He died at Fairmount, Denver, Colo., Sept. 9, 1907. William R. Boggs, Jr.-The notice in the Bulletin for January was incorrect in saying that the murder of Mr. Boggs occurred while he was employed as metallurgical. manager by Mr. W. B. A. Dingwall, at La Maroma, San Luis Potosi, Mex. Mr. Dingwall writes that in March, 1907, Mr. Boggs left him, to return to his home at Winston, N. C., whence he. subsequently went to Durango, Mex., to take, with the Topia Mining Co., a position which he occupied at the tine of his death, Nov. 17, 1907. Mr. Dingwall says that, while in his service, Mr. Boggs never had any trouble with the workmen, but was esteemed and liked by them, as by all who knew him ; and adds, injustice to the State of San Luis Potosi, that the population, even in the mining-camps of that State, is orderly and law-abiding, and that the authorities are vigilant and just. Our

Mar 1, 1908

By F. M. Morris

A large reserve of thick coal in southwest Virginia was developed by Clinch-field Coal Co. in 1957-1958 to produce a nominal rate of 1500 tph raw coal. Operation features coal cleaning in transit. Refuse removed averages 35 pct. Evolution of plant from initial conception to completion is discussed, selection of means applied is explained, and performance to date us design expectation is described. The long-range plan calls for ultimate handling capacity of 40,000 tpd raw coal with anticipated clean coal capacity of 26,000 tpd on a three-shift basis. From a materials handling viewpoint, the Moss No. 3 operation is principally of interest as an ensemble. Generally speaking, it uses time-tested equipment and ideas but some of these are employed on a scale that may be new in the industry. At present about 20,000 tpd of raw coal are being handled. This is expected to increase to 40,000 tpd as soon as business conditions justify it. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the evolution of the plant as to materials handling practices, to describe briefly the equipment and methods used, and to comment on performance in certain areas. The subject divides itself naturally into four phases: 1) operations at the mines, 2) transportation from mines to plant, 3) raw coal handling into the plant, and 4) transportation of refuse away from the plant. OPERATIONS AT THE MINES The coal reserves for Moss 3 are in southwest Virginia where Dickenson, Russell, and Buchanan Counties come together. This area contains about 15 square miles and over 100,000,000 tons of coal. Here the No. 4 (Tiller) and No. 5 (Jawbone) seams of the Norton Formation lie so closely together that for practical purposes, they constitute one seam of coal. This seam, which is called the Thick Tiller, varies from 10 to 18 ft in thickness and underlies Sandy Ridge, a mountain cresting between 2400 and 3300 ft above sea-level. At 18-ft seam height (which is considered to be the maximum practical mining height) the parting between seams will be about 3 1/2 ft thick and each bench of coal will be about 7 ft thick. Depending on the amount of impurities in the seams Drover. total reject in this height coal may approximate 50 pet by wt. It will average about 35 pet for the property as a whole. The first move in developing this resource was made in 1953 when contour maps of several square miles around Duty, Va., including all the known outcrop, were made by photogrammetry. At this time, it was felt the prospective operation would be served by the Clinchfield Railroad and a photogrammetric route survey was made by this railroad from Haysi to Duty. Study of the resulting maps indicated only one site—adversely owned—which might accommodate the size washing plant to be erected. Water resources of a dependable nature seemed nonexistent. In 1954 bulk washability tests were made on the Tiller Bench at the Moss No. 1 preparation plant. The tests indicated this portion of the seam, mined separately, would wash to 4 pet ash with good recovery. Also in 1954, development of Moss No. 2, south of Sandy Ridge, was begun. This mine is in the Tiller Seam where it is about 100 ft below the Jawbone Seam. The reasons for developing a mine in the normal Tiller Seam before tackling the Thick Tiller seemed compelling: Railroad service could be established quickly, communications were better (though not good!), more was known of the seam (it had been mined in the years 1911 to 19241, and there was no essential property to be acquired. After some legal skirmishing, the Norfolk & Western Railroad was granted the right to serve the new mine. Three decades earlier the old mine had been served by the Clinchfield Railroad. The event which triggered active development of Moss 3 was the Appalachian Power Co.'s decision in 1956 to build a 450,000-kva power plant on Clinch River at Carbo. This solved the problem of marketing the steam coal which inevitably must be a product of a mine in the Thick Tiller. Management promptly decided to build the preparation plant at Carbo where an excellent site was owned; where railroad service existed; where telephone service could be obtained; and where roads, bridges, and water supply were tolerable.

Jan 1, 1961

By Charles H. Fulton

ONE of the events of note in mineral industry education circles during the year was the summer school for engineering teachers, devoted to mining and metallurgical engineering, which was conducted by the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education in co¬operation with the University of Wisconsin. It was in charge of Prof. Harry P. Hammond, director of the summer school, and Prof. Richard S. McCaffery of the University of Wisconsin. It was attended by 63 people, and practically every educational institution offering mineral industry courses had representatives present. The session was successful and those in attendance spoke highly of the pro¬gram and results obtained. The Mineral Industry Education Division cooperated with the S.P.E.E. in this project. Prof. Hammond will discuss the purpose and results of this session at the February meeting.

Jan 1, 1934

The earliest record of coal in Indiana is one of the earliest in the country. At the close of the French and Indian War, in 1763, the famous Indian trader, George Croghan, was sent from Pittsburgh on a mission to the western Indians. His party met that of a hostile chief on the lower Ohio and was captured, and were taken up the Wabash River; on June 22nd, he passed the mouth of the Vermilion River-probably the Big Vermilion-and on June 23rd, he made the following entry in his journal: "on the South Side of the Ouabache runs a high hank, in which are several very fine coal mines, and behind this bank, is a very large meadow, clear for several miles."' The mines, of course, were outcrops. A few days after this he met some Indian acquaintances who secured his freedom. This location was at Ouicatanon, 210 miles from "Port Vincent," which was destroyed a few years later, and in what is now Fountain County, probably near Coal Creek. Croghan was familiar with the coal already being worked at Pittsburgh. Surveyors who ran the township and section lines in the first ten years of the last century noted the presence of coal and marked its position on the maps in 1804.2 The next record is by Nicholas J. Roosevelt, who in 1809 examined the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers prior to starting building the first steamboat to navigate these rivers. "Not only did he do this, but finding coal on the banks of the Ohio, he purchased and opened mines of the mineral; and so confident was he of the success of the project on hand, that he caused supplies of the fuel to be heaped upon the shore, in anticipation of the wants of a steamboat whose keel had yet to be laid."3 It is probable that this account confused the date of seeing the coal with that of mining it, as an earlier account by another relative of Mrs. Roosevelt of the first trip of the steamboat New Orleans in 1811 is as follows:

Jan 1, 1942