Search Documents

Members whose deaths were reported from Apr 7, 1923, to Apr 5, 1924 Elected Died 1918 ADKINSON, HENRY M 1923 1900 AGNEW, WILLIAM C 1923 1894 ASHLEY, H H 1923 1897 AUSTIN, KENNETH 1924 1903 AYERS, EMMA L C 1923 1913 BAECHTOLD, CHARLES A 1924 1900 BAIN, HUGH A 1924 1919 BASHORE, E GORGAS 1923 1920 BATTELLE, GORDON 1923 1923 BAYLES, GERARD L 1924 1881 BROCK, CHARLES 1923 1903 BROOKE, HENRY 1923 1876 BROWN, HARVEY H 1923 1904 BROWN, THOMAS E 1923 1919 BUCK, DANIEL M 1924 1906 CHALMERS, THOMAS S 1924 1881 CLEMES, JOHN H 1923 1896 COLLINS, HENRY F 1924 1871 COURTIS, WILLIAM M 1923 1915 CRESSON, B F, JR 1923 1921 CROWE, WALDO P 1923 1920 DARNELL, J ORA 1923 1911 DAVIS, HENRY G 1924 1918 DAVIS, ROBERT S 1923 1916 DEANE, WILLARD A 1924 1901 DEMPSTER, WILLIAM 1924 1911 DEVEREUX, W B, JR 1923 1895 DICKENSON, F M 1924 1904 DRUM, FRANK G 1924 1875 DUDLEY, P H 1924 1916 EATON, ARTHUR 1923 1919 EATON,SHERMAN 1924 1911 GRIFFITH, WILLIAM 1924 1919 HILSDALE, PAUL 1923 1922 HODGES, I F 1923 1916 HOFIUS, MAX, T 1924 1914 HUGHES, HOWARD R 1924 1919 HUMMEL, CARL B 1923 1874 HUNT, ROBERT W 1923 1921 JONES, ERNEST EVANS 1923 1917 JOSLIN, CHARLES T 1923 1918 KASJENS, JACOB G 1923 1899 KIRKEGAARD, PETER 1924 1920 KLAUS, HARRY C 1923 1892 KNOERTZER, HENRI1924

Jan 1, 1923

By W. A. Backofen, D. Lee

Tlze condition of superplasticity or neck-resistanl flow that results front high strain-rate sensitivity has been observed in isothermal tension tests on several titanium alloys and one of zirconium hi general, il was associated with reasonably fine-grain micro-structures being stvained in the transformation range at rates below i - 10 -3 sec-&apos;. The metallographic mean-free path, L, was measured at room temperature after rapid cooling from the temperature of test-ing. The flow stress of Ti-GAL-4V at 950°C was proportional to La at different constanl <; the value of a decreased with increasing. E but at E< 1.5 x 10-4 sec-1 it varied only from 0.9 to 1.25. The findings were interpreted to mean that viscous boundary shear is the rate-controlling process of deformation at high levels of strain rate sensitivity in these materials. Elongation of over 1000 pet could be obtained, but a1 temperatures so high and rates so low that any practical application of the full effect would probably be difficult. As the transformation range was narrowed, by turning from Ti-6AL-4V to Ti-5Al-2.5sn to nomznally pure titanium, the allowable temperature varialion was correspondingly reduced. Superplasticily was not found in Armco iron, presumably because the transformation range was too narrow to allow the developtnenl of a reasonably stable microstructure for isolhermal lesting. THE work represented by this paper grew out of a recent study of texture hardening in a(hcp) titanium and zirconium-alloy sheet,&apos; of which part has now been published.2 It was found that, with heating, the tensile plastic-anisotropy index, R,* was decreased from well above 1 towards 1 as the temperature range for the a(hcp) -ß(bcc) phase change was entered. The clearest example of that trend is illustrated with previously unpublished data in Fig. 1. It might have been thought that such a development resulted simply from introduction of the cubic and therefore plastically less anisotropic phase. However, the accompanying change in the index of tensile strain-rate sensitivity, m = a log a/a log E, was rapidly upwards, to a high of 0.85 in some cases (also illustrated in Fig. 1). At the same time, the total tensile elongation rose to a maximum and the flow strength dropped away as R (and m) approached 1. Taken together, the observations cannot be understood as resulting from the presence of cubic phase, per se. It has been concluded instead that they reflect the largely noncrystallographic deformation which characterizes superplasticity. As demonstrated in other recent work? a necessary condition for super-plasticity is strain-rate sensitivity of flow stress sufficiently high that m is above a lower limit of -0.3. The origin of large m has been traced, in turn, to grain size so small that a substantial amount of viscous deformation is introduced by such processes as Nabarro-Herring diffusional flow4 and/or grain boundary shear.5,6 Because of problems in the processing of titanium and zirconium alloys—problems of high strength, limited ductility, and excessive springback, originating largely in slip resistance-it was natural to wonder if something useful might be done with superplasticity in those materials. Therefore experiments were made for more closely identifying and generally bounding the phenomenon with temperature and strain-rate limits, before attempting to decide about its exploitation. The results are being reported here. EXPERIMENTAL Materials. The two of primary interest were the titanium alloys of nominal composition (in wt pct) 5A1-2.5Sn and 6A1-4V. Others were a 4A1-1/4O2 titanium alloy, titanium of commercial purity (RC-70), Zircaloy-4. and Armco iron. All were received as annealed 3/16 in. thick sheet, except RC-70 which was & in. thick, and tested in that condition. Details of transformation temperature and grain size are given in Table I. The results of dilatometry for the measurement of transformation temperatures were unsatisfactory. Data were finally obtained by metallographic examination of each specimen after test, to determine from the amount of transformed 4 where the specimen had been heated in relation to the critical temperatures. Results were in reasonable agreement with information from the supplier. Strip tensile specimens were of full sheet thickness and taken along the rolling direction, except for those

Jan 1, 1968

By G. S. Brooks

The tendency of the oxides of such metals as aluminum, zinc, chromium, and calcium to form compounds at high tempera tures with iron oxide is well established by past investigation. Data of this reaction, as developed in laboratory research, have been contributed by Burleigh, Hofman, and Wells, in America, and by many others abroad. A partial bibliography of the subject is appended. From these authorities we learn that the ferric oxide here has the function of an acid, giving in the case of ZnO a zinc ferrite, with a normal composition of ZnOFe2O3 This formation of zinc ferrite particularly affects the success of such processes as leaching or magnetic separation, and thus becomes practically important to the metallurgist. But the meager existing data do not entirely agree; and quantitative results from muffle-practice are conspicuously absent. Furthermore, it being of some general importance to the zinc smelter in both roasting and reduction, the following few notes of operations oil a commercial scale are contributed: I. Physical Properties of Zinc Ferrite. As formed for the most part synthetically by investigators, zinc ferrite exhibits characteristic physical properties, such as octahedral crystals, dark color, and a density over 5, together with a slight magnetic attractability. In examining with the microscope many products of mechanical muffle-roasting kilns, it is, however, impossible to find individual grains which can be identified as consisting entirely of zinc ferrite. The variety of colors, especially where each grain of blende was mechanically free from marcasite, rather conveys the impression of a partial ferritization of the grain. One side or end, for example, may often have the hard, dense surface and dark red to black color of the ferrite, while the balance shows the usual light yellowish brown of a normal iron-free blende.

Jan 1, 1914

By L. A. Bromley, A. W. Petersen

The van Arkel-deBoer method for producing ductile titanium by thermal decomposition of Til, vapor and deposition on an electrically heated filament is modified by film boiling Til liquid on a heated filament, resulting in similar titanium deposition on the filament and liberation of gaseous iodine. The deposition rate is higher and the energy requirement smaller than in the van Arkel process. Many problems must be solved before the process is commercially feasible. TITANIUM of 99.9 pct purity, called ductile titanium, has been produced by a modification of the van Arkel-deBoer&apos; method. In the van Arkel-deBoer method, an electrically heated wire is suspended from two electrodes, which are placed in a container holding TiI, vapor at a low&apos; vapor pressure (usually <5 mm Hg). The vapor diffuses to the hot wire, usually maintained at 1100" to 1600°C,&apos; and decomposes according to the reaction liberating gaseous atomic iodine and depositing solid crystalline titanium on the wire. Estimations based on the data of Runnalls and Pidgeon,&apos; indicate that the rate-control ling step is the diffusion of atomic iodine away from the wire. There appears to be nearly thermodynamic equilibrium at the wire with TiI, and iodine as the main gaseous species. TiI, is almost certainly an important gaseous species in the cooler regions.&apos; The liberated iodine diffuses to a heated source of crude titanium and reacts to form more TiI, vapor, which again diffuses to the hot wire and completes the cyclic process. The foregoing process may be modified by suspending the hot wire in liquid TiI,, instead of the vapor, and obtaining film boiling. This type of boiling is characterized by the formation of a continuous film of vapor over the wire surface. Since only vapor contacts the wire sul.face, the temperature of this surface may be raised as high as desirable, within the limit of mechanical strength requirements for the wire. By properly adjusting the input voltage. the temperature of the wire may be maintained above U0C"C; and by evacuating the vessel holding the liquid TiI, and maintaining a suitable condenser temperature, the vapor pressure of TiI, may be held low. Thus, the conditions of operation of the van Arkel-deBoer method may be approximated with film boiling; and hence, it is postulated that ductile titanium may be produced by this method. Preparation of Til, There are many methods available for the preparation of TiI,; that used in this research was prepared by the direct reaction of titanium sponge in controlled amounts with liquid iodine. Although no difficulty was encountered with this reaction, it has since been pointed out that this method is sometimes dangerous and should be used with caution. The resulting TiI, was purified by distillation. First Film Boiling Experiments Apparatus: The apparatus shown in Fig. 1 was used for film boiling TiI, on short wire filaments. The current to the filament was supplied through a bank of three 5 kva transformers connected in parallel. The current was controlled by adjusting the voltage over a 0 to 67.5 v range with a 7 kva variable transformer on the low voltage side of the bank of transformers. The current and voltage were measured by Weston meters. The sealed-in-glass tungsten electrodes were hard-soldered to the filament for the film boiling of TiI,. The bottom part of the reactor, containing TiI,, was wrapped with ni-chrome heating wires to maintain the TiI, in the liquid state. An ice or liquid nitrogen trap, for solidifying I, vapor and any TiI, not condensed, was attached to the low pressure side of the air-cooled condenser. A Megavac vacuum pump was used. Procedure: A 0.010 in. diam tungsten filament was hard-soldered to the tungsten electrodes. TiI, was melted (mp 156°C) and poured into the reactor chamber; the top of the reactor chamber, containing the electrodes, was replaced. Freezing of the TiI, was prevented by controlling the current to the ni-chrome wires wrapped around the reactor with a 1 kva variable transformer. The mechanical vacuum pump was started and the system evacuated to about 2 mm Hg TiI, vapor pressure. The current to the filament was turned on and the impressed voltage slowly increased with the variable transformer. A sudden drop in current at nearly constant im-

Jan 1, 1957

By R. F. Mehl, B. Lustman

THE formation of intermediate phase layers in cementation processes has been subjected to extensive qualitative investigation though to relatively little quantitative study; this work has recently been fully summarized by F. N. Rhines.1 It is necessary here only to enumerate the general conclusions drawn concerning the kinetic laws governing the growth of intermediate layers and to state what is known concerning the structural changes accompanying the generation of phase layers. I. When the intermediate phase is protective in type-i.e., when its density is less than that of the base metal, so that a continuous coating is formed and maintained-the isothermal growth of the phase follows a simple parabolic equation: [1 = ki [I]] where X is the thickness of the alloy layer, k the reaction rate constant, and [t] the time. The applicability of this equation to diffusion processes is tested by plotting the square of the thickness versus time, or by plotting the thickness versus the square root of time; the resultant achievement of a straight line in such a plot has been considered sufficient proof of the validity of this equation. Exceptions have been found where liquid phases are involved in the reaction, where the diffusion layer is cracked,2 and where thin semimetallic oxide and sulphide coatings are formed on metals.3 In the first two cases the thickness increases linearly with time, and in the latter it is a logarithmic function of time. 2. The rate of thickening varies with temperature according to the Arrhenius equation: [k = Ae-QIRT [2]] where k is the parabolic rate constant of Eq. I, or some other rate-descriptive function, A is the action constant, e the base of natural logarithms, Q the heat of activation, R the gas constant, and T absolute temperature. This equation has been found to be generally valid except when transformations occur during reaction in either the base metal or in the reaction layer; in such instances Eq. 2 is still applicable with different values for the constants A and Q above and below the transformation temperature. 3. All phases that are stable at the temperature at which diffusion occurs will appear in the interdiffusion of two components. In some cases certain of the phases may be too thin to be observed and identified easily. Nonequilibrium phases have never been noted in thick reaction layers; i.e., layers of a thickness that may be discerned microscopically. The relative thickness of each phase in a diffusion layer is proportional to the concentration gradient and to the rate of diffusion in that phase.4 The reaction layers tend to have a

Jan 1, 1942

By George S. Ansell, John B. Hudson, Stephen A. Koffler

The permeability of hydrogen through the a phase of palladium has been measured by a low pressure permeation technique under conditions such that bulk diffusion was the rate-controlling process. The observed permeability is described by the equation: J = 1.80 x 1O-3 P½exp(-3745)/RT) cc(stp)/sec/cm2/en over a range of hydrogen pressure, P, from 2.9 x 10-5 m Hg to 5.0 x 10-3 cm Hg, and over a temperature range, T, from 300" to 709°K. The fact that the permeability shows a square root dependence on pressure and a reciprocal dependence on thickness was taken as evidence that bulk diffusion, rather than surface reactions, was the rate-controlling process. The permeability data were used in conjunction with the solubility data of Salmon et al., to determine the diffusivity of hydrogen through palludium as: D = 4.94 x 10-3 exp(-5745/RT) cm2/sec There was no influence of sub structural defects observed over the temperature range employed. From the permeability data obtained, coupled with grain size measurements, it was concluded that the ratio of grain boundary diffusivity to bulk diffusivity was less than 105 over the range of temperature investigated. THE diffusive mass transport of hydrogen in the a phase of palladium has been studied previously by numerous investigators.&apos; In spite of the large amount of attention this system has received, there is not good agreement between the results obtained in different investigations.&apos; This is due in part to the fact that the mass transport was surface-limited during some of these studies, rather than being diffusion-controlled3-5 The reason for the disagreement in other cases is not clear. These studies made use of such techniques as rate of absorption from solutions6 and gases,&apos; electrochemical potential,8 time lag,&apos; and permeation10,11 to determine the mass transport behavior. Of these, the gas permeability technique is the only method which allows an easy test to determine if diffusion is the rate-controlling mechanism, thus eliminating the uncertainty regarding the limiting transport processes inherent in the other techniques. The two most recent permeability studies are those of Toda10 and Davis." Toda determined the permeability of hydrogen in the a phase of palladium over the temperature range from 170" to 290°C, and over the pressure range from 36 to 630 mm Hg utilizing a steady-state gas-permeability technique. Toda&apos;s result was: J = 1.41 x 10-3 P½ exp(-3220/RT) where J = specific permeability in cc(stp)/sec/cm2/cm, P½ = square root of the inlet pressure in (cm Hg)½, R = Universal gas constant, and T = temperature in deg Kelvin. Davis11 also employed a steady-state gas-permeability technique over the temperature range from 200" to 700°C and over the pressure range from 0.02 to 760 mm Hg. His result for the permeability of hydrogen in the a phase of palladium was: J = 3.15 x 10-3 P½ exp(-A440/RT) In the range of overlapping temperature for these two investigations, the values of the specific permeability calculated from the above two equations differ by a factor of about 1.8. In the present investigation, the permeation of hydrogen in the a phase of palladium was determined over a wide temperature range, 27" to 436oC, and over the pressure range from 2.9 x 10-5 to 5.0 x 10-3 cm Hg. This temperature range overlaps that of the previous investigations of Toda and Davis, but also covers the lower temperature range which has never before been investigated. The lower pressure range used here avoided the interaction between the dissolved hydrogen atoms observed at higher hydrogen concentrations.&apos; MATERIALS The as-received palladium specimens were cold rolled from a casting and were supplied as 5.08 cm discs of 0.508 and 0.762 mm thickness. According to J. Bishop and Company specifications, the composition of the discs was 99.95 pct Pd, the balance being Cu, Ag, Au, and Ir. In order to obtain samples of varying grain size, the as-received discs were then heat treated. Sample 1 was treated for eight minutes in a nitrogen atmosphere at 810°C and then air-cooled. Sample D was heated first to 550°C in helium. The helium atmosphere was then immediately replaced by hydrogen and the temperature was slowly raised to 1220°C and held for 22 hr. The sample was then cooled to 550°C where the hydrogen was replaced by helium and the disc was further furnace-cooled to room temperature. Sample H was given the same heat treatment, only with hydrogen substituted for helium below 550°C. The reason that hydrogen was not used throughout the entire annealing cycle for samples D and H was to prevent the distortion encountered by low-temperature cycling in hydrogen observed by Darling." After these heat treatments were completed, the

Jan 1, 1970

By K. D. Jacob, W. L. Hill

Fluorine recovery in the United States has been restricted chiefly to manufacture of ordinary superphosphate and wet-process phosphoric acid. However, there is an expanding use of fluorine by industry in the form of hydrofluoric acid. Improved methods for recovering fluorine from phosphate rock would yield an adequate supply of fluosilicates and a substantial contribution to the hydrofluoric acid requirement. THE bulk of natural phosphates is comprised of calcium phosphates, which are usually apatites;&apos; calcium aluminum phosphates such as pseudowavel-1ite; and aluminum phosphates, which occur in extensive deposits, notably on Grand Connetable Island." Nearly all deposits of current commercial value are apatite, often with admixed material of other classes. In the trade coarsely crystalline material, mainly fluorapatite of igneous origin, moves as apatite, whereas the fine-grained material of sedimentary origin is marketed as phosphate rock. The latter classification includes the phosphate shales in western North America. Although several genetic varieties of phosphate rock are recognized, most known reserves are of marine origin. Calcium phosphate is concentrated from Florida land pebble and Florida hard rock deposits and from Tennessee brown rock deposits. Phosphate Rock as a Fluorine Carrier: More than two decades ago Reynolds and Jacob surveyed the fluorine content of commercial phosphate rock from various parts of the world. Later these samples were re-analyzed by a new and more reliable method of determining flourine. The revised results with interim additions of new samples, published a few years ago in a brief summary," are shown in Figs. 1-3. Through the points representing the respective varieties of rock medial straight lines are drawn. In some instances the lines are well defined by the points; in others, where scattering renders the position of the best line uncertain, the greater weight is given points near the end of the covered range. Wherever distinct varieties are not recognized among regional deposits the custom is to identify the sample with the geographical location of the deposit. Although all rock varieties cannot be classified with certainty, the plotted results exhibit three distinct types of rock in which the F to P2O5 ratio diminishes, remains sensibly constant, and increases, respectively, as the grade of rock increases. Existence of two types of Florida land pebble, Fig. 1, is supported by additional results recently supplied by a producer." Generally speaking, phosphate rock from continental deposits carries considerably more fluorine, and apatite and insular phosphates less, in proportion to the phosphorus content than is required by the formula for fluorapatite. Exceptions to this are apatite from Canada and certain samples of Florida waste-pond phosphate. The manner in which excess fluorine is held and the nature of the carbonate in carbonate apatite are discussed in recent articles. High-grade calcium phosphates with F to P2O5 ratios less than 0.05 have been found in Curacao, Christmas Island," Mexic,13 and elsewhere. The calcium aluminum phosphates and aluminum phosphates aften carry notable amounts of fluorine. The F to P2O, ratio for one sample of pseudowavel-lite concentrate was 0.05." Aluminum phosphate from Grand Connetable Island is very low in fluorine, whereas some aluminum phosphate minerals" carry as much fluorine as highly fluorinated phosphate rock. Fluorine in Domestic Phosphate: The curves shown in the figures permit interpolation of the F to P2O5 ratio corresponding to the midpoint of selected ranges in grade of any one of the several varieties of phosphate. Multiplication of the interpolated ratio by the mid-range grade (P2O5) yields a figure for the percentage of fluorine in this grade. Then, with the use of the mid-range grade, the amount of fluorine held in phosphate reserves can be estimated, see Table I. Accordingly, on Jan. 1, 1950, the fluorine complement of known domestic reserves exceeded 420,000,000 long tons of the element. A previous figure," deduced in 1940 by a simpler procedure

Jan 1, 1955

By A. U. Seybolt

The solubility limit of oxygen in columbium has been determined in the range between 775&apos; and 1100°C by means of lattice parameter measurements and microscopic examination. The solubility is a function of temperature and varies, in the range given above, from 0.25 to 1.0 pct O, respectively. BECAUSE of the marked deleterious effect of oxygen upon the mechanical properties of some of the transition metals, it is desirable to know something about the solubility of oxygen in these metals. The brittleness caused by oxygen in solution is particularly marked in the case of the group VA elements, vanadium, columbium, and tantalum. The solubility of oxygen in vanadium has already been reported in an earlier paper,&apos; and Wasilewski2 has given a value (0.9 wt pct) for the solid solubility of oxygen in tantalum at 1050°C. Brauer3 in 1941 investigated the Cb-0 system up to Cb2O5, but made no real effort to investigate the extent of oxygen solubility in the metal. He made the observation, however, that this solubility must be less than 4.76 atom pct (0.86 wt pct) oxygen. This estimate was made from X-ray diffraction results on the alloys CbO, CbO, and CbO; all alloys consisted of the terminal (Cb) solid solution plus CbO, but the last alloy containing 4.76 atom pct 0 showed only three very weak CbO lines. It is surprising that Brauer, by examining only three alloys, arrived at an estimate of the solubility which agrees very well with the results to be reported herein. Experimental Procedure A columbium strip obtained from Fansteel Metallurgical Products was cut into strips, 0.020x1/2x2 in. Two holes, about 3/16 in. in diameter, were made near the ends of the strips in order to hold them against a flat steel block for mounting in a General Electric X-ray spectrometer for lattice parameter measurements. The same holes were used to hang the specimens inside a fused silica vacuum furnace tube which was part of a Sieverts&apos; gas absorption apparatus. The apparatus and method of adding oxygen gas has been previously described.1 According to the supplier, the columbium obtained had the analysis given in Table I. After degreasing the samples, approximately 0.001 in. was etched from each side of the samples in order to remove possible surface impurities from the last rolling operation. For this purpose the following cold acid pickle was found satisfactory: 8 parts HNO3, 2 parts H2O2 and 1 part HF. Various Cb-O compositions were obtained up to 0.75 wt pct O by the gas absorption and diffusion technique. After the sample had absorbed all the oxygen gas added at 1000°C, an additional 24 hr was allowed for homogenization. This treatment appeared to be adequate, as shown by the linearity of the lattice parameter-composition plot. More concentrated alloys were prepared by arc melting mixtures of Cb and Cb2O5 since it was very time-consuming to make Cb-0 alloys in the neighborhood of 1 pct O, or over, by the diffusion method. When the flat strip specimens were used, they were ready for the X-ray spectrometer after cooling from the Sieverts&apos; apparatus. The cooling rate obtained by merely allowing the hot fused silica furnace tube to radiate to the atmosphere (when the furnace was lowered) was sufficiently fast to keep the dissolved oxygen in solution. Arc-melted alloys were reduced to —200 mesh powder in a diamond mortar, wrapped in tantalum foil, sealed off in evacuated fused silica tubes, and then heat treated as indicated in Table 11. The fused silica tubes were quickly immersed in cold water without breaking the tubes after the heat treatments. The tantalum foil prevented reaction between the fused silica and the sample; there was no reaction between the powdered samples and the foil at 1000°C, but some trouble was experienced at 1100°C. At this temperature level a reaction between the sample and the foil was sometimes observed, which resulted in erroneous parameter values. Experimental Results Hardness Tests: Since most of the X-ray samples were in the form of flat strip, it was convenient to obtain Vickers hardness numbers as a function of oxygen content. Compared to the V-O case,&apos; oxygen hardens columbium much more slowly, presumably because of the larger octahedral volume in colum-bium (about 12.0 compared to 9.3Å3 in vanadium), hence, requiring less lattice strain for solution. The plot of VHN vs wt pct O is shown in Fig. 1.

Jan 1, 1955

The following list contains the names of members of whose deaths notices have been printed in MINING AND METALLURGY during the year ending April 1, 1937. Biographical sketches published in MINING AND METALLURGY are indicated in the last two columns. YEAR OF ELECTION - NAME - DATE OF DEATH - ISSUE CONTAINING BIOGRAPHY - PAGE I892 ALLDERDICE, TAYLOR May 20, I934 1919 ALTMEYER, MAURICE E June 9, I936 1917 ANDERSON, JAMES P Jan. I4, I937 I936 ANDERSON, O RAN M Jan. 12,1937 I908 AUSTIN, E. A I935 1914 BACON, MAURICE W Jan. 4, I936 Apr. I936 22I 1914 BARTHOLOMEW, WILLIAM F Oct. 7, I936 Dec. I936 602 I930 BERRY, HAROLD R July 1, I936 1915 Betts, Robert M Jan. 9, I937 HON

Jan 1, 1937

Robert T. Hill, Washington, D. C.: Having studied very minutely the geology of the district referred to by Prof. Branner, I beg to state that his quotation of my classification of the Cretaceous deposits of Arkansas is not the one which I originally gave,* nor is it the one which has since been published and is now generally accepted.? I did not assign ally of the Cretaceous formations of Arkansas to the " middle Cretaceous,"

Jan 1, 1898

By Alfred H. Bell, George V. Cohee

In 1941 Illinois produced 134,139,000 bbl. of oil, or 9.5 per cent of the total for the United States, and ranked fourth among the states. The production for 1941 declined 9.2 per cent from the previous year&apos;s total of 147,647,000 bbl. Daily average production for 1941 was 366,000 bbl. At the beginning of the year daily production was slightly more than 326,000 bbl. and it remained at appoximately that amount until June, when there was a slight increase. The increase continued until the peak of 431,260 bbl. daily was reached for the week ending Oct. 4. Daily average production at the end of the year was approximately 387,500 barrels. The increased production during the last half of 1941 was largely due to the rapid development of the Johnsonville field, Wayne County, the Rural Hill field, Hamilton County, and the Benton field, Franklin County—new fields discovered in the current year (Fig&apos; 1)—and the Woodlawn pool, discovered in 1940. Discoveries In 19 counties in southern Illinois, 44 new fields were discovered in 1941 (Fig. 2 and Table 2), and extensions to 40 fields were successfully completed (Table 3). At the end of the year there were 10,496 wells in the fields discovered since Jan. I, &apos;937, as compared with 71965 wells at the end Of &apos;940. The area proved for production in the new fields increased from 78,040 acres at the beginning of 1941 to 97,483 acres at the end of the year (Table I)—an increase of 19,433 acres, of which 9,955 acres are in the fields discovered during the current year, and the remainder of 9,478 acres in extensions to pools discovered earlier. Drilling During the past year, 3838 wells were completed in Illinois (Table 4), of which 2912 were oil producers, 13 were gas producers and 913 were dry holes; 76 per cent of the wells drilled were producers. Of the total number drilled, 591 wells are classified as "wildcat" and of these 84 (1 in 7) were successful in obtaining production. The results of an investigation to ascer-tain the reason for the locations of the wildcat wells are set forth in Table 5. Of the 591 wildcat wells, the 292 known to have been located by scientific methods were 21.6 per cent successful. The total footage of wildcat wells drilled in 1941 was 1,341,743 ft., of which a total of 216,995 ft. was drilled in successful wells. Exploration MEthods Subsurface geology and geophysics, largely the reflection seismograph, are still the principal methods used in exploration and development in the state. The number of seismograph parties operating throughout the year was as follows: seven parties on Jan. I, 1941; five on Apr. I; four On July I; eight on Oct. I; fifteen on Jan. 1: 1942.

Jan 1, 1942

By Alfred H. Bell, George V. Cohee

In 1941 Illinois produced 134,139,000 bbl. of oil, or 9.5 per cent of the total for the United States, and ranked fourth among the states. The production for 1941 declined 9.2 per cent from the previous year&apos;s total of 147,647,000 bbl. Daily average production for 1941 was 366,000 bbl. At the beginning of the year daily production was slightly more than 326,000 bbl. and it remained at appoximately that amount until June, when there was a slight increase. The increase continued until the peak of 431,260 bbl. daily was reached for the week ending Oct. 4. Daily average production at the end of the year was approximately 387,500 barrels. The increased production during the last half of 1941 was largely due to the rapid development of the Johnsonville field, Wayne County, the Rural Hill field, Hamilton County, and the Benton field, Franklin County—new fields discovered in the current year (Fig&apos; 1)—and the Woodlawn pool, discovered in 1940. Discoveries In 19 counties in southern Illinois, 44 new fields were discovered in 1941 (Fig. 2 and Table 2), and extensions to 40 fields were successfully completed (Table 3). At the end of the year there were 10,496 wells in the fields discovered since Jan. I, &apos;937, as compared with 71965 wells at the end Of &apos;940. The area proved for production in the new fields increased from 78,040 acres at the beginning of 1941 to 97,483 acres at the end of the year (Table I)—an increase of 19,433 acres, of which 9,955 acres are in the fields discovered during the current year, and the remainder of 9,478 acres in extensions to pools discovered earlier. Drilling During the past year, 3838 wells were completed in Illinois (Table 4), of which 2912 were oil producers, 13 were gas producers and 913 were dry holes; 76 per cent of the wells drilled were producers. Of the total number drilled, 591 wells are classified as "wildcat" and of these 84 (1 in 7) were successful in obtaining production. The results of an investigation to ascer-tain the reason for the locations of the wildcat wells are set forth in Table 5. Of the 591 wildcat wells, the 292 known to have been located by scientific methods were 21.6 per cent successful. The total footage of wildcat wells drilled in 1941 was 1,341,743 ft., of which a total of 216,995 ft. was drilled in successful wells. Exploration MEthods Subsurface geology and geophysics, largely the reflection seismograph, are still the principal methods used in exploration and development in the state. The number of seismograph parties operating throughout the year was as follows: seven parties on Jan. I, 1941; five on Apr. I; four On July I; eight on Oct. I; fifteen on Jan. 1: 1942.

Jan 1, 1942

By Charles C. Peterson, Ronald E. Enstrom

Significant improvements have been made in the ursine systern for epitaxial vapor gvowtlz of Gds. The electron concentration has been reduced to below 1015 cm-3 with electron-mobility values as high as 7200 sq on per v-sec at 30PK and 60,000 sq cw7 per v-sec at 77°K. These high-purity layers have been successfully gvown on n&apos; layers with thicknesses as snzall as 1 p and as large as 125 p. Furthermore, high-purity layers have been incorporated into an structure without degradation of electrical properties. Different impurity gradients at the n&apos; to n interface were achieved. Using these structures, Gunn oscillators have been operated at frequencies as low as 0.4 GHz and as high as 40 GHz, which equals the highest valzle yet reported. The frequencies nleasured are in reasonable apeenlent with those calculated fron7 the n-layer widths and the transit times. CW operatiolz has been achieved from 3 to 20 GHz. In Gunn devices for >40 GHz operation (i.e., witk an n-layer tkickness below 2.5p), the n layer has been generally too pure to permit oscillations to occuv. ThE mechanism of the Gunn oscillator&apos; is now generally understood.2-5 Electron transfer from the (000) minimum to the ( 100) minima leads to a voltage-controlled negative resistance, which results in the formation of domains of high and low electric fields which travel through the crystal with a characteristic velocity of about 107 cm per sec. When a constant voltage is applied to the sample, this domain motion generaliy leads to oscillations at the transit time frequency, fT = 107/L, where L is the thickness of the active n layer.&apos; In this case, a single high-field domain is nucleated at the cathode and grows until it reaches the anode, where it is absorbed; a new domain then forms at the cathode.5 There are related modes of oscillation of the same device in which a tuned circuit causes a periodic variation of the voltage across the device. The frequency then may be either above or below fT. It has been shown that oscillations will occur when n • L 2 1012 cm"2, where n is the carrier concentration in the active region. At lower doping densities, 10" 5 n . L 5 lo&apos;&apos;, the doping is said to be subcritical for oscillation and the description of the device operation changes since the domains become comparable in thickness to the device thickness, L. Nevertheless, such devices have been found to be "active" and, in fact, are useful as amplifiers.778 For CW operation, one wishes to minimize the power dissipation, which is related to the electric field, E, and the low-field resistivity, p. Below threshold, the power dissipation density is approximately Typically, at threshold where E -- 3 x 103 v per cm, the dissipation density is 107/p watts per cu cm, p in ohm-cm. Furthermore, it is desirable to provide good conduction of the heat generated in the active region. The temperature rise, AT, across the active layer of a sandwich structure, with a heat sink on one side, is given by AT = (E&apos;/P)(L~/~~) where it is assumed that the thermal conductivity, u, and resistivity, p, of GaAs do not vary appreciably over the range of temperature and electric fields existing in the layer. This expression shows that, subject to maintaining an appropriate (n . L) product, CW operation is favored by a higher resistivity, a lower threshold field, and a thinner device. The above device requirements place some severe restrictions on the materials to be used, especially for high-frequency (>10 GHz) operation. Here, it is necessary to prepare very thin (<10 µ) layers of GaAs, in a state of high purity (-1 ohm-cm), complete with very low-resistance ohmic contacts. Problems of handling such thin and fragile samples become inereasingly severe as the frequency is raised. Furthermore, while good low-resistance ohmic contacts are easily applied to low-resistivity GaAs, contacting difficulties are encountered for these higher-resistivity materials.

Jan 1, 1968

By F. H. Wilson, E. W. Palmer

G. L. Bailey (British Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association, London, England)—I was glad to see this further work on the structure and properties of the Cu-Ni-Fe alloys of low nickel content in which we have been so interested in the United Kingdom since before the war." The authors&apos; data on the variation in solubility of iron in both 5 and 10 pct Ni alloys with temperature is based on more detailed observations than we have made but is generally in line with our own work. The difficulty in these matters is in the identification of the structures obtained. The precipitation of the second phase which we presume to be the a&apos; solid solution, richer in nickel and iron, from the a solution with which it is in equilibrium occurs in such a fine state of division that its resolution by ordinary micro-graphic methods is impossible in the early stages. We have published some electron micrographs which illustrate the effects observed more clearly but we agree with the authors when they say that dark staining characteristics when the alloys are subjected to sea-water corrosion are more sensitive in detecting the presence of the a&apos; phase than is the microscope. After taking this point into consideration, however, I confess to some difficulty in understanding Fig. 4. I can only assume that the precipitates visible at such a low magnification as 150 diam in these relatively coarse forms are produced from iron-rich areas of the initial solid solution due to inadequate homogenization. If this is so I find it difficult to accept the authors&apos; contention that such local variations in iron concentration as are capable of giving the heavy precipitates shown in Fig. 4 do not in fact materially affect the solvus surfaces of their equilibrium diagrams. I share the authors&apos; enthusiasm about the resistance to corrosion of these alloys by seawater but I am not fully in agreement with them on the vexing question of the best iron content for these alloys. In Fig. 3 of ref. 8, we give many results showing that the resistance of these alloys to impingement attack in the Jet Test increases as the iron content rises to 2 pct. With higher iron contents pitting at shielded areas is likely to occur. Admittedly the addition of 0.75 pct Fe produces a large improvement in corrosion resistance compared with a pure 90/10 Cu-Ni alloy, but the further improvement on raising the iron to 2 pct is substantial. We recommend from 1.5 to 2 pct Fe as the desirable range from the point of view of corrosion resistance. While it is true that British practice generally uses a hard tube, the corrosion resistance of the 10 pct Ni alloys has in our work been little affected by the structural condition. Although the annealed alloys blacken in seawater, this effect seems to be superficial and not to be accompanied by any real decrease in

Jan 1, 1953

By R. Raring, W. J. Harris, J. A. Rinebolt

G. W. Geil (National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.)—The authors state that the degree of accuracy realized in the experimental determination of a, is likely rather low. This inaccuracy is attributed to the difficulty in reading the load of the tension machine at the instant of fracture of the test bars. I believe there is another factor which may have added considerably to the inaccuracy in the determination of a,, namely, the determination of 8,. Fracture of a cylindrical tensile specimen of a ductile metal tested in tension at room temperature is generally initiated at the axis and rapidly propagates radially to the periphery of the necked section. During the propagation of the fracture, the metal at the rim of the minimum cross-section extends longitudinally and contracts radially. Thus values of 81, based on diameter measurements made after complete fracture of the specimens do not necessarily represent the strain at the initial fracture." Data obtained at the National Bureau of Standards with a 0.3 pct C steel in the condition as-quenched from 1575°F and tempered at 1000°F for 1 hr and tested in tension at room temperature indicated a considerable "rim effect" and as shown in Fig. 13, resulted in an apparent increase in Sf from 0.90 to 0.98. As the fracture strain of this steel is approximately equal to those of the steels reported by the authors, it seems probable that a similar "rim effect" may have added to the inaccuracies in the reported values of Si and accompanying values of El. R. Raring (authors&apos; reply)—The authors are grateful to Mr. Geil for having called attention to a possible source of uncertainty in the determination of fracture stress, and they are in agreement with the principles upon which his discussion is based.

Jan 1, 1952

By William C. Aitkenhead, John A. Jaekel

Uranium deposits in the Spokane Indian Reservation, as well as those around Mt. Spokane, are essentially low grade, much of the ore containing less than 0.2 pct U808. The Mining Experiment Station of the Division of Industrial Research, State College of Washington, has been engaged in intensive research on the amenability of these low grade ores to froth flotation. The results: successful flotation of autinite, chief mineral constituent. At the outset of this work the goal was a concentrate of 1 pct U308 with a 90 pct recovery from ores containing less than 0.2 pct U3O8. Most of the work has been done on argillite ore from the Midnight mine on the Spokane Indian Reservation. The goal has not been attained using this ore, but samples of the granite ore from Mt. Spokane yielded successful results. For example, a concentrate containing 11.2 pct U308 was produced from a Mt. Spokane high grade ore containing 1.27 pct U3O8 with a recovery of 97.8 pct. Another Mt. Spokane ore yielded a concentrate of 5.0 pct U3O8 from an ore containing 0.13 pct U3O8, with a recovery of 85 pct. This same ore gave a recovery of 93.5 pct when the grade of concentrate was reduced to 2.0 pct.

Jan 1, 1959

By Stuart Croasdale

NOT long ago I was called upon to conduct some experiments on the treatment of ores from the New Cornelia copper mine, Ajo mountains, Arizona, for the Calumet & Arizona Copper Co. The problem was a very interesting one and contained some unusual features. Incidental with this problem was the utilization of a large amount of low-grade pyrite in the Bisbee mines of the company, provided this could be accomplished by any feasible method. The New Cornelia mine is situated 45 miles south of Gila Bend, the nearest railroad point, on the Southern Pacific Railroad. It is about 160 miles, almost due west, from Tucson. This section is one of the most arid in the United States. The normal annual precipitation, as given by the United States Weather Bureau covering a period from 1870 to 1901, is 3 to 5 in. During June and July, 1913, the records kept by the company gave the following results. These are all I have available, but they show the enormous evaporation that can be expected, which may be a factor in leaching operations on a large scale.

Jan 8, 1914

By S. R. Maloof, W. R. Mitchell, J. A. Mullendore

Preliminary experimental evidence is presented to show that the metallic impurities aluminum, iron, and silicon, and beryllium oxide as found in commercially pure hot-pressed beryllium powder can be reduced to lower Concentrations by Zone -Purification techniques. The reduction in the concentration of aluminum to extremely low levels (10 PPm) is noteworthy, since earlier work demonstrated that aluminum is a major factor contributing to the hot-tearing of beryllium during fusion welding. On the basis of present findings, a method is suggested for producing beryllium metal of improved weldability. EXPERIMENTAL research now being conducted on the purification of beryllium indicates that several of the metallic impurities and beryllium oxide can be reduced to lower concentrations by employing standard horizontal zone-refining techniques. For the preliminary work, commercially-pure hot-pressed beryllium having a purity of 97.84 pct was used. The chemical composition is given in Table I. The hot-pressed beryllium was machined into bars 5/8 by 5/8 by 4 to 6 in. in length. Beryllium-oxide boats which had been conditioned by prior heating in a vacuum of 10"5 mm of Hg at 1100°C for 3 hr were used to hold the beryllium while it was zone melted. The boat with its charge, along with a smaller beryllium-oxide boat containing scrap beryllium to be used for gettering purposes, was loaded into a quartz tube and evacuated to 10-6 mm of Hg. Alter alternately evacuating and flushing three times with purified argon, the furnace tube was backfilled to a pressure of 1/6 atm of A and sealed off by means of a vacuum-tight stopcock. It was then removed from the pumping equipment and mounted on the traveling carriage of the zone-refining apparatus. Heating was accomplished with a 10 kw 450 kc induc- tion heating unit using an induction coil consisting of two turns of 3/16-in. diam copper tubing. Before starting to zone melt, the atmosphere in the furnace tube was gettered by heating the scrap beryllium in the smaller boat to above its melting point and holding at temperature for several minutes. The carriage was then shifted so as to locate one end of the beryllium ingot in the large boat within the induction coil. A molten zone approximately 3/4 to 1 in. was established by loading directly into the ingot. The molten zone was moved very slowly along the length of the ingot. Before each pass was made the procedure for evacuating, flushing, and backfilling, and so forth was repeatedI&apos; Speeds of 1 1/2 and 3 in- per hr were used with up to twelve zone passes. The appearance of a typical zone-refined ingot is shown in Fig. 1. After zone refining, the grains in the ingot appear to be elongated in the direction of zone travel, whilst before, they are essentially equi-axed. A microexamination revealed the presence of a network in the beryllium grains as seen in Fig. 2. Laue spots in back reflection pictures taken of the sample were not sharp, indicating the presence of subgrains in the structure. As can be seen, however, many of the network boundaries cross beryllium grain boundaries. It has been shown by Martin and Moore1 that beryllium solidifies as a bcc structure which then transforms to the hexagonal structure at about 1250oC.It is believed that the observed network is merely the outline of the bcc structure which formed from the melt and are not subgrain boundaries. In order to eliminate surface contaminants, approximately 1/16 of an inch of material was removed from the outer skin of each ingot after zone refining.

Jan 1, 1962

By D. N. Hedges

This paper discusses the actual recovery and installation of a longwall in a bituminous coal mine in western Pennsylvania. The coal bed mined is in the Lower Freeport seam, which averaged 1.07 m (42 in.) in height locally. Drainage from the mine is about 13.25 ML/day (3.5 million gal per day) of water. This water deteriorates the mine&apos;s predominately fire clay bottom making it extremely difficult to move equipment. Support removal is accomplilshed by pulling the 5.44 t (6 st) shields out under their own hydraulic power and transporting them by track 8.05 km (5 miles) to the next longwall panel. This paper also discusses the changes that will be made to aid in the succeeding longwall recoveries and installations.

Jan 1, 1985

By Claude P. Heiner

mountain region to M tht Coast points for domestic consumption and for export are shown in Table 11. There is considerable disparity in rates from both Rock Springs, Wyo., and Castle Gate, Utah, to the four coast cities where the slack coal is to be used for purposes other than export. The rate on coal to be exported is the same from either starting point to any of the four coast cities even though there is a difference of as much as 341 miles in the shipping distance. It is interesting to note that the freight rate between Sunnyside, Utah, and Fontana, Calif., on coking coal is $5.05 per ton and that coal up to 8 in. can be moved on this rate if it is suitable for coking. This rate was published late in 1942 on a contemplated annual movement of more than 500,000 tons. There have been decreases in freight rates since 1923 on movements of slack coal from Utah into Seattle and Portland due to pressure on the railroads and to greater. quantity of coal shipped. It is the author,&apos;, opinion that a movement of slack coal in excess of 3 million tons of coal per year from Utah to any point in central California would justify a freight rate equal to that puhlished for Fontana, Calif.. or $5.05 per ton. The movement of 3 1/2 million tons of coal per year on the basis of 240 mine working days per year would require that 14,600 tons be handled each mine working day. If it is assumed that shipments could be arranged for a 6-day week, the average railway movement would he 11,200 tons, or approximately 3 trains containing fifty-five 70-ton coal cars per day. Such movements of coal would require railroad equipment represented by the investment amounts stated in Table 12 and entail the services of 250 men. Table 12 ... Railroad Equipment and Investment Required To Move 11,200 Tons of Coal a Day from Utah to California Railroad Equipment Cost 2800. 70-ton coal cara at $6.000 each $16,800.000 32 locomotives at $310.000 each. 9.920.000 Miscellaneous eauiument:.......... .5;000:000 Total........................ $31,720,000 It therefore appears that, under presently known mining methods, the lowest price at which coal could be sold f.0.b. the mine in amounts of 3 1/2 million tons per year for generation of power in central California would be $4.60. It also appears that the lowest freight rate that could be expecled between intermountain points and the central California area would be $5.05 per ton, making a total cost of coal delivered at a plant site of $9.65 per ton. Conelusions The following are the author&apos;s conclusions: 1. Coal mines in Utah and in the Kemmerer and Rock Springs districts of Wyoming could increase annual production by 6 1/2 million tons per year. 2. Under present conditions coal could probably be delivered to any steam electric plant in central California at a price not to exceed $9.65 per ton. 3. The use of coal at such a price, while higher than the equivalent present price of fuel oil, is entirely feasible. 4. There are adequate railroad facilities for movements of large quantities of coal from the intermountain region to the Rest Coast. 5. In a national emergency it probably would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to obtain sufficient oil to meet requirements of the greatly expanded West Coast steam electric generatsing capacity. 6. The intermountain region contains ample coal reserves to supply all conceivable demands for West Coast power generation for a number of generations. 7. Increasing demands of labor threaten to lessen, if not eliminate, savings in cost of coal production through the use of new mining machinery. 8. Continuation of experiments in socialism by the Federal Government through construction of hydroelectric generating plants, particularly those unrelated to land-use reclamation, defies justification. Rates under this concept of a governmental function are subsidized through greater taxation of its people. Private capital is available to construct steam plants, or hydro plants where feasible, and should be permitted to continue in order to preserve the principles of our free enterprise system. DISCUSSION (L. C. McCabe and Robert P. Koenig, presiding) C. C;. BALl*—I was asked to lead off the discussion, but it is not with the thought that I might be able to add anything to the paper. The thoroughness with which it was prepared rather forestalls the asking of many questions. Your treatment, Mr. Heiner, is a very valuable contribution. I do want to suggest—that although you have limited your study to this specific question, with certain geographic limitations, many of the things in your paper apply just as well to the eastern coals. I want to agree 100 pct with your final conclusion concerning government-subsidized construction. Id. C. McCabe*—It is certainly worthwhile to take stock occasionally to see where we are going in problems of this nature. I agree with Mr. Heiner that ultimately the only reliable source of fuel that the West Coast has is coal hut the time factor is the difficult element to evaluate. Just before I came here I discussed this subject with N. B. Hinson, Vice President and Executixe Engineer of the Southern California Edison Company, and Chairman of the West Coast Inter-Power Exchange Committee. He has given much thought to utilities&apos; fuel supply and it was very helpful to me in preparing a discussion of the paper to talk with him beforehand. Stock taking and forecasting of future development are essential to the continuing success of any enterprise. Mr. Heiner has called attention to the unprecedented growth of central and southern California and to the increased demands for fuel and power which have accompanied it. He discusses the increased fuel oil and natural gas requirements and the probable limits on the future use of these fuels and of hydroelectric power. In contrast to the calculable limits of these sources of electric energy, the author points to the availability of enormous reserves of coal in the Rocky Mountain States adjacent to the Pacific Coast which can be utilized for power generation. That there will be increased use of coal for power generation in the area under discussion is generally accepted hut it is in the timetable of such development that there is not complete agreement. In a recent report, Mr. Hinson reviewed the future power outlook for the Pacific southwest area. He pointed out that the use of steam plants in connection with water power plants in this region has made the maximum use of hydroelectric energy possible, and that the correct balance between hydro and steam generating plants produces the most economical overall system. Steam plants in the area which had been installed to protect against deficiency in hydro energy in dry years were used to carry war loads. Fortunately, no dry

Jan 1, 1950